PRINCIPLES AND METHODS 



OF 



TEACHING 



A MANUAL FOR NORMAL SCHOOLS, READING 
CIRCLES, AND THE TEACHERS OF ELEMEN- 
TARY, INTERMEDIATE, AND 
HIGHER SCHOOLS 



BY 

CHARLES C. BOYER, Ph.D. 

PROFESSOR OF PEDAGOGICS, KEYSTONE STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, KUTZ- 

TOWN, PA., AND AUTHOR OF " CONCRETE PSYCHOLOGY," 

** PSYCHIC INITIATIVE IN EDUCATION," ETC. 




PHILADELPHIA 

J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 



26286 



Copyright, 1899, 

BY 

J. B. LippiNCOTT Company. 



T\A<0 COPIES R£w ...wLJ. 



FFn201899 



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Electrotyped and Printed by J. B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia, U.S.A. 






PREFACE. 






The art of teaching should have its foundations in science ; 
for then and only then will teaching cease to be mechanical 
obedience to " authority." Such obedience was the curse of 
the " old" education. " Tradition" and " prescription" deter- 
mined the methods not only in oriental systems of education, 
but also in the later civilizations of Europe. The principle of 
authority has not wholly disappeared from modern school- 
rooms. Rational methods of teaching, indeed, are the excep- 
tion rather than the rule in the great mass of American 
teachers. 

The individual teacher must have part in the construction 
of the science in which his art is to have its foundations. 
Otherwise the " new" education will simply substitute one 
tyrant for another. In other words, obedience to principles 
of philosophy, though it be the best philosophy, is only slavery 
as long as the teacher who submits to such laws cannot justify 
these in his own consciousness. 

The great mass of teachers is not equal to the task of con-r 
structing the complex science of education independently. 
This task implies not only analytic knowledge of human 
nature in its manifold relations, but also the power of syn- 
thetic thought. The great body of teachers, therefore, need 
supervision in constructing their system of educational prin- 
ciples. It is hoped that the plan of the present treatise may 
supply at least a portion of the needed supervision. 

In complexity of " thought" and " language," the needs of 
the general reader as well as those of Normal Schools and Col-: 

3 



4 PREFACE 

leges were kept in mind. The psychological analyses and in- 
ductions, and all derivatives, have been adapted in vocabulary 
and composition to the ordinary reader, while the systematic 
thinking required throughout the book will employ the best 
powers of readers of higher attainments. 

The cyclopedic scope of the treatise is justified by the cyclo- 
pedic courses of study in our common schools. Experience 
shows that it will not suffice to train teachers in the principles 
and methods of a few branches with the hope that they will 
then know how to proceed in the other branches. This dis- 
covery should not surprise us ; for, although the development 
of knowledge is generically the same in all departments of study, 
the individual features of the various studies require special 
modifications in the methods of their development. 

It is hoped that the plan of this treatise may commend 
itself to the judgment of teachers. 

(1) The nature of man, especially the psychical processes and 
principles, is made the first subject of inquiry. 

(2) The conclusion that education should consist of such de- 
velopment of man's possibilities as best fit him for complete 
living seems unavoidable. 

(3) The essential features of this ideal development of man 
are exhibited in the chapter on the nature of education, and a 
synthesis of these views is found in the general principles of 
education. 

(4) The principles of culture, knowledge, and instruction 
are deductions from the general principles of education, as 
confirmed inductively by the history of education. 

(5) The proposed methods of culture and instruction are 
practical deductions confirmed by the experience of the best 
teachers. Special attention is called to the proposed science- 
method of instruction, i.e., the development of all branches by 
observation, induction, and deduction, the ideal succession of 
mental activities. It is believed that, all other things equal, 



PREFACE 5 

the teacher who catches the spirit of this method will work 
the most intelligently and obtain the most satisfactory results. 
The history of education in Germany, France, and parts of 
America clearly confirms this conclusion. 

For extensive treatment of the science of education the 
reader is respectfully referred to such standard works on teach- 
ing as Rosenkranz's " Philosophy of Education," and Tomp- 
kins' " Philosophy of Teaching," to which this treatise is de- 
signed to be a stepping stone, and with whose theories American 
teachers are happily becoming better acquainted. Grateful 
acknowledgment is here made to the various inspiring writers 
consulted and quoted by the author. 

This book is humbly dedicated to the teachers of our coun- 
try, with the sincere hope that it may be of service to them 
and their pupils, and to the cause of education in general. 

Charles C. Boyer. 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

Preface 5 



PART I. 
PSYCHOLOGY. 

CHAPTER 

I. Mental Activity 12 

II. Laws of Mental Activity 25 

PART II. 

PEINCIPLES OF TEACHING. 

I. Nature of Education : General Principles 33 

II. Principles of Culture 41 

III. Nature of Knowledge 46 

IV. Principles of Knowledge 59 

V. Principles of Instruction 67 



PART III. 

METHODS OF TEACHING. 

I. "Mental Culture 79 

II. Object Lessons 89 

III. Reading 106 

IV. Writing 131 

V. Spelling 145 

VI. Composition 169 

VII. Grammar 204 

VIII. Arithmetic 240 

IX. Geography 282 

X. History 310 

7 



8 CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

XI. Drawing 328 

XII. Manual Training 347 

XIII. Physiology 359 

XIV. Physical Culture 363 

XV. Singing 371 

Eeperence Books for Collateral Eeading 383 

Index 389 



PRINCIPLES AND METHODS 
OF TEACHING. 



PART I. 
PSYCHOLOGY. 



PRINCIPLES AND METHODS 
OF TEACHING. 



INTRODUCTORY. 

In teaching, it is true, we have to do with the pupil's body 
as well as with the mind. Our present purpose forbids ex- 
tended reference to physiology, with which we must therefore 
assume that the reader is familiar. Pedagogics, however, con- 
sists so largely of psychology, and teachers are so generally in 
need of a compact restatement of the fundamental truths of 
psychology, that a chapter on this subject is indispensable in a 
treatise on pedagogics. The teacher of pedagogics should, ac- 
cordingly, assure himself that his students understand (1) The 
Method of Psychology, (2) Mental Activity, and (3) The Laws 
of Mental Activity. 

THE METHOD OF PSYCHOLOGY. 

In psychology the student (1) observes his own mental ex- 
periences or those of other minds, (2) regards these experiences 
as individuals of a genus, and (3) confirms these hypotheses 
by variations in numerous experiments. In other words, the 
process of psychology consists of (1) the observation of men- 
tal phenomena, and (2) the ascertainment of their laws by in- 
duction and deduction. The present chapter is designed to 
prompt exercises in this method of discovery. The student 
must, of course, be wisely supervised. 

11 



12 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

CHAPTER I. 

MENTAL. ACTIVITY. 

The phenomena with which the self-observing mind meets 
are not a classified collection of distinct elements, but rather a 
mass whose elements must be discovered by analysis. The 
mass, as the self-observing mind discovers by analysis, con- 
sists of a synthesis of distinct elements ; but the order in 
which these elements become distinct depends, of course, on 
the individual observer, the time of his observations, the pre- 
dominance of some elements over others at the time of observa- 
tion, etc. If, however, these elements became distinct to the 
observer in their necessary order of dependence, as appears 
from subsequent inquiry into the nature of these elements, 
they would present themselves to the observer somewhat as 
follows : (1) Sensation, (2) Ideation, (3) Relation and Emotion, 
and (4) Volition. 

I. INTELLECT. 

The phenomena of sensation, ideation, and relation, as will 
appear in the sequel, deserve our attention under the head of 
Intellect. 

Sensation. The observing mind discovers variations in its 
phenomena corresponding to the variations in its physical en- 
vironment. These variations, as physiological psychology 
teaches, are the "affects" of "impresses" on the "end-organs" 
of the "sensorium," and are termed Sensations. In other 
words, " Any mental state upon tlie basis of which the mind 
obtains a knowledge of the world around It," is termed a 
Sensation. 

Ideation. Mental " images" of the external or internal 
" objects" for which mental data stand, are termed Ideas, and 
the process of forming ideas is termed Ideation. The process. 



MENTAL ACTIVITY 13 

as further analysis will show, begins in sense-presentation ; 
analysis and synthesis follow. In all phases of ideation the 
mind only " posits" objects without dwelling on likeness, dif- 
ference, necessity, etc. In other words, there is no " copula" 
in ideation. The copula, as we shall see, forms " thoughts" 
out of ideas. This distinction, since its description is so diffi- 
cult, should be illustrated by means of logical " propositions," 
in which " ideation" and " copula" (relation) are respectively 
the initial and final necessities. The various phases of idea- 
tion, as already intimated, are as follows : 

Perception. The mind observes repetition of sensations in 
the repetition of external impresses, and thus learns to refer 
sensations to such impacts as causes. In this way sensations 
become "data" by means of which the mind identifies its 
whereabouts in space and time. It is not only through the 
special sense organs, as the eye or ear, that we obtain a knowl- 
edge of physical environment, but also through all the other 
species of sensation of which man is capable. The complex 
phenomenon in question is termed Perception. In other words, 
The process of referring sensations to physical impacts as causes, 
is termed Perception. The term is derived from the Latin 
words per, by means of, and capio, I take hold of. The mental 
results thus obtained are termed Percepts. 

Memory. Sensations, and, as physiological psychology 
teaches, all mental experiences, inasmuch as in the present 
junction of body and mind they are inseparable from simul- 
taneous sensations, leave association tracks or paths in the 
neural apparatus. By means of these associations the mind 
revives and recognizes its experiences. This complex phe- 
nomenon is termed Memory ; the later " editions" of mental 
experiences thus obtained are termed Memories. In other 
words, The process of retaining, reviving, and recognizing 
menial expenences is termed Memory. The tendency of defi- 
nite and frequent associations to persist, is termed Habit, or 



14 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

Retention. Voluntary memory is termed Recollection. The 
essential element of memory as mental phenomenon is Recog- 
nition, i.e., the knowledge that what has come back is a later 
edition of our own mental experiences. 

Imagination. In perception the mind comes into actual con- 
tact with realities ; in memory past realities are represented 
with great fidelity. Since, as physiological psychology teaches, 
the cortical tracts of perception and memory are the same, any 
stimulation of these tracts, whether the origin of the stimulus 
be within the mind itself or in the sensorium, will produce a 
semblance either of perception or of memory. (1) The pri- 
mary phase of imagination, as in illusions and dreams, resem- 
bles perception and memory very closely. In the effort to 
construct historical and fictitious events, etc., imagination be- 
comes a mental substitute for perception. (2) In its second 
phase, as in the mental projection of lines, and the construc- 
tion of wholes, etc., imagination is mental emancipation from 
the perception-limits of space and time, and from the normal 
correlation of parts, epochs, etc. Thus imagination becomes 
a supplement of perception and the means of mental transi- 
tion from the real to the possible, etc. (3) In the third phase 
of imagination the mind, in obedience to the stimulus of ses- 
thetic, moral, or philosophic abstractions, forms " new combi- 
nations" out of materials furnished by perception and mem- 
ory, but always in terms of perception, as in the conceptions 
of artists, moralists, scientists, and inventors. The process in 
question, in all its reproductive and productive, voluntary and 
involuntary phases, is, as appears, really " representative," 
although as to its perfection the representation may vary from 
the faintest resemblance to perception or memory to infinite 
extensions. This process of apprehending possibilities sug- 
gested by experienced realities is termed Imagination, from tlie 
Latin word imago, copy or likeness. In sliort. The apprehen- 
sion of possibilities as perceptions is termed Imagination. 



MENTAL ACTIVITY 15 

Abstraction. Qualities, as physiological psychology teaches, 
first become the object of thought in perception and self-con- 
sciousness. Our first ideas of brittleness, beauty, right, and 
truth, for example, are formed in the perception or conscious- 
ness of things that suggest these ideas to the mind. The ideas 
thus formed are termed " concrete," from the fact that they 
are formed without dissociating the qualities from the things 
to which they belong. It is, however, possible to make quali- 
ties the object of thought without reference to the things in 
which they are found by perception and introspection. It 
is thus that we may think of brittleness, beauty, right, and 
truth, without reference to things which suggest these ideas to 
the mind. The sesthetical, ethical, and philosophical distinc- 
tions, i.e., those of beauty, morality, and truth, generally ap- 
pear later and mature more slowly than the other distinctions 
now under consideration. The mental process in question is 
termed Abstraction, from the Latin words abs, from, and traho, 
I draw. In short, The process of dissociating qualities as objects 
of thought is termed Abstraction. The peculiarities of several 
of these abstract -distinctions, especially their distance from 
the concrete, and their universality, led the " older" psycholo- 
gists to classify them separately as "intuitions," from the 
Latin words in, into, and tueor, 1 see. The " new" classifi- 
cation simplifies matters without injustice to truth. The 
power of aesthetic abstraction is termed Taste, and that of 
moral abstraction is termed Conscience. The aesthetic and 
moral distinctions, i.e., those of " beauty" and " right," gen- 
erally appear somewhat later and mature more slowly than 
other abstract distinctions. 

Generalization. Our first ideas of things, as apples, horses, 
government, etc., are percepts, as already shown. Two species 
of synthesis follow : (1) The mind discovers that some of the 
individuals of perception, memory, etc., have common proper- 
ties. Apprehending these common properties in successive 



16 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

abstractions, and synthesizing the successive impressions into 
mental wholes, the mind forms object-concepts, as recorded in 
common nouns. It is in this way that our idea of a house, 
book, or bell, develops with our experience. (2) The mind 
also discovers varieties of the same quality, as sweetness, in 
otherwise dissimilar individuals, as sugar, apples, dispositions, 
etc. Apprehending these varieties of the same quality in suc- 
cessive abstractions, and synthesizing the successive impres- 
sions into mental wholes, the mind forms quality -concepts, 
as recorded in abstract nouns. 

A collection of similar individuals (objects or qualities) is 
termed a Genus. Object-concepts and quality-concepts, as 
recorded respectively in common and abstract nouns, may 
therefore be termed General Ideas, and the process of synthe- 
sis in which they originate may be termed Generalization. 
The great Herbart preferred the term Apperception, from 
the belief that all concepts are derived from perception. In 
short, The synthetic enlargement of ideas is termed Generaliza- 
tion. 

Consciousness. Of its own states and acts the mind is 
aware somewhat in the same sense as the world without us ap- 
pears to the senses. In the phenomenon in question the mind 
becomes its own " object of thought," very much as a plant is 
made an object of perception. This process of introspection 
is termed Consciousness, from the Latin words con, at the 
same time, and sdo, I know. Children, as experiments prove, 
are for months only indefinitely conscious of the " self" of 
consciousness. It is only by and by that the child learns to 
distinguish "self" sharply from "other." Ordinarily the 
untutored adult observes his own states and acts as little as 
the novice in botany observes the flowers at his feet. The 
tutored mind not only knows that " self" is the " object of 
thought" in consciousness, but observes its own acts and states 
as the botanist observes flowers, i.e., critically, in order to 



MENTAL ACTIVITY 17 

ascertain properties and relations. Voluntary consciousness 
is the primary source of information in the " mental" sciences. 
(See the chapter on Knowledge.) Abstraction and generaliza- 
tion follow consciousness very much in the same way as they 
follow the process of perception. In short, The process of in- 
trospection by which the mind becomes aware of its own states 
and acts, is termed Consciousness. 

Thought. The mental processes of which the various 
species of " sentences" are expressions, are evidently arrange- 
ments of ideas rather than formations of ideas. The mental 
activity in question resolves itself into two species. 

Judgment. In the act of judgment, as expressed in a logi- 
cal proposition, the mind passes from one object of thought to 
another to ascertain their agreement or disagreement, as when 
we estimate length, weight, worth, etc. The process is often 
termed Direct Comparison. It is termed " direct" comparison 
because in the act of judgment only two objects of thought are 
in question. The term "comparison" is derived from the 
Latin words con, with, and par, equal. Accordingly, The 
process of passing from one object of thought to another to ascer- 
tain their agreement or disagreement, is termed Judgment. 

As soon as, in the course of our comparisons, we find a 
number of similar individuals we group them on the ground 
of such similarity. Sorting books, plants, insects, actions, etc., 
illustrates the process, which, whether it be only mental or also 
physical, is termed Classification. In " common" classification 
physical properties are the bases of judgment, as in the arrange- 
ment of books in a library ; in " scientific" classification the 
relations ascertained by complete induction are the bases of 
judgment, as in Natural History. In short. The process of 
grouping individuals on grounds of resemblance, is termed Clas- 
sification. (1) Progressive classification, i.e., the formation of 
groups of individuals, as in addition, multiplication, and the 
constructing of a sentence, is termed Synthesis, from the Greek 

2 



r 



> 



18 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

words syn, together, and tithemi, I put. (2) Regressive classifi- 
cation, i.e., the isolation of individuals that compose a class, 
whole, or genus, as in subtraction, division, and the separating 
of a sentence into its component parts, is termed Analysis, from 
the Greek words ana, up, and luo, I break. 

Reasoning. The formation of judgments, i.e., the process of 
relating ideas, is termed Thinking, or Thought. " Thoughts" 
may in turn become the " object of thought," i.e., the process 
of relating ideas may be indirect as well as direct. This 
process of thinking is termed Reasoning. In short. The 
process of indirect judgment is termed Reasoning. The process 
in question resolves itself into two species. 

(1) The process of reasoning from a particular judgment, 
i.e., a judgment concerning individuals, to a general judg- 
ment, i.e., a judgment concerning a genus, is termed Induction. 
The following combination of thoughts illustrates induction : 
The sum of the angles of this triangle is two right angles ; the 
same thing is true of all observed triangles ; therefore, the sum 
of the angles of any triangle is two right angles. 

(2) The process of reasoning from a general to a particular 
judgment is termed Deduction. The following combination 
of judgments illustrates deduction : The sum of the angles of 
any triangle is two right angles ; ahe is a triangle ; therefore, 
the sum of its angles is two right angles. 

The common idea of two associated judgments is known in 
logic as the " middle" term. The word triangle in the first 
two judgments of the above illustrations names the middle 
term, and is itself often called by that name. Two judgments 
that have a " middle term" are known as " related" judgments, 
as in the illustrations. Two judgments so related that a third 
judgment grows out of their relation, are termed Premises, 
from the Latin words pre, before, and mitio, I send. (See the 
illustrations.) The consequence of the relation of two judgments 
is termed the Conclusion, from the Latin words con, together, 



MENTAL ACTIVITY 19 

and cludo, I close. (See illustrations.) The derivation of a 
judgment from the relation of two judgments, is termed Syl- 
logism, from the Greek word syn, together, and logizomai, I 
reckon. (See illustrations.) 

The term "understanding" is commonly applied to the 
" thought" processes in question. Thought, or understanding, 
as psychology teaches, is always fundamental in ideation. In 
the broadest sense, any process of forming ideas or thoughts, 
whether the mind thus arrives at " knowledge," or " truth," 
i.e., ideas and thoughts which are true, or only at " opinion," 
i.e., ideas and thoughts which may or may not be true, is 
termed Thinking. If the mind thus arrives at knowledge, 
the process is termed Knowing. The mind's power of think- 
ing and knowing is termed Intellect. 

II. SENSIBILITY. 

The consequences (see Total Reaction, next chapter) of in- 
tellectual activity, are states and moods of mental pleasure or 
pain. These mental states and moods are termed Feelings, or 
Sensibilities, or Emotions, and the function of mental feeling is 
termed Sensibility, or Emotion. The feelings are significantly 
termed Emotions, from the Latin words e, out, and moveo, I 
move, because, whether simple or complex, they tend to re- 
veal themselves in the face, eyes, and carriage of the person 
affected. 

Simple Emotions. There is a species of mental pleasure 
or pain, commonly termed gladness or sadness, in which the 
emotion is not an attitude, or trend, toward the causes of the 
pleasure or pain, but simply a state, or condition, to which the 
person affected has been moved by sensation, ideas, or thoughts. 
This species of mental feeling is therefore said to be Subjective 
rather than Objective, i.e.. Simple in its reference to " self" 
rather than to others. Accordingly, Feelings that are not atti- 
tudes, but only states, are termed Simple Emotions. Or, Feel- 



20 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

ings that are only states of mental pleasure or pain, and not 
also attitudes, or dispositions, toward the causes of the mental 
pleasure or pain, are termed Simple Emotions. " Cheerful- 
ness," "good mood," "melancholy," "mental distemper," — 
these are the familiar descriptions of simple emotions. 

Affections. That which gives pleasure, or that w^hich has 
worth, or that which has come intimately into our life, readily 
becomes an object of endearment, or sympathy, or respect, or 
esteem. When something has thus become " dear" to us the 
feeling is termed Love. Friendship, gratitude, patriotism, and 
piety, are familiar species of Love. The absence, as well as 
the opposite, of love, is technically termed Hate. Ingratitude, 
heartlessness, and impiety, are familiar species of hate. 

In simple emotion there is no object upon which the feeling 
centres ; but in love and hate there is always an object. If 
the object is " self," the emotional attitude is termed Egoistic ; 
if the object is "another," the attitude is termed Altruistic. 
In other words, love and hate are dispositions toward, or rela- 
tions to, some person or thing, be it self or other, and they 
are significantly termed Affections, from the Latin words ad, 
toward, and fectio, disposition. Accordingly, Feelings that 
are not only states of mental pleasure or pain, but also atti- 
tudes of approbation or disapprobation toward the causes of 
the pleasure or pain, are termed Affections. Or, Feelings that 
are not only states, but also attitudes of approbation, or disappro- 
bation, are termed Affections. 

Desires. Pleasure, sympathy, respect, esteem, etc., often 
become longings, or demands, to possess or enjoy that which 
gives pleasure, or appears to deserve respect, or esteem. If 
that which the " heart" demands is at a distance, or difficult 
to attain, the demand may become intense suffering, as in the 
case of thirst or personal attachments. When this intense 
feeling becomes " master" it is termed Passion, as in the case 
of ambition and avarice. 



MENTAL ACTIVITY 21 

The feelings now under consideration do not only centre 
upon an object, but they also insist on possessing and enjoying 
that object. This insistence, egoistic or altruistic, to possess 
and enjoy that which we long to possess and enjoy, is denoted, 
for want of a better word, by the term Attractive, in the sense 
of a demand. These feelings of longing, or demand, are there- 
fore not only objective, but also attractive. 

To all species of emotional demand, positive and negative, 
the term Desire has been applied. Accordingly, Feelings 
that are not only attitudes, but also demands, are termed 
Desires. Or, Feelings that are not only attitudes of appro- 
bation or disapprobation toward the causes of the mental 
pleasure or pain, but also requests to possess the causes of 
pleasure, or to escape the causes of pain, are termed Desires. 
Avarice, ambition, revenge, etc., are familiar species of De- 
sire. Desires whose objects, as food or stimulants, are de- 
manded for physical gratification, are termed Appetites ; those 
whose objects, as knowledge or power, are demanded for 
mental gratification, are termed Sentiments. The desire "to 
know" is termed Interest, or Curiosity. (Interest is often an 
affection.) 

Expectations. Faith in the possibility of attaining that 
which is desired, is termed Expectancy. The union of ex- 
pectancy and the longing to possess that which, is deemed 
capable of giving pleasure, is termed Hope. Deprived of 
this expectancy, Hope becomes Despair. In other words, 
Desire deprived of expectancy is termed Despair. The 
union of expectancy and the longing to escape that which is 
deemed capable of giving pain, is termed Fear. Fear ceases, 
or else becomes Hope, when expectancy is removed. Thus 
it appears that hope and fear have the common element of 
expectancy. Accordingly, Desires coupled with faith in their 
attainment, are termed Expectations. 

The manifestations of sensibility are Simple Emotions, 



22 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

Affections, Desires, and that modification of Desires termed 

Expectations. 

III. WILL. 

We attempt to determine our " trend," whether it be of 
mind or body. In this attempt we assume om* power to be 
our own master and sovereign. Within definable limits this 
assumption is correct, as experience goes to show. In other 
words, we can " govern" ourselves, as well as think and feel. 
The ability to govern ourselves, however limited the domain 
may prove to be, is termed Will, and any exercise of this ability 
is termed Willing, or Volition. 

Motives. Possible courses of activity come to our view as 
cross-roads do on a journey. There is such a thing as mental 
pause, and it resembles the traveller's halting at the cross- 
roads. In this time of mental poise we compare the merits, 
real or supposed, of the alternatives in view, as, for example, 
when we try to " make up" our mind on some point of duty. 
The considerations that influence this mental struggle, as in 
temptation, may be either intellectual or emotional, as in a 
case of conscience and passion. There may be either harmony 
or opposition of intellect and sensibility, as in obedience to 
law. The influences in this mental poise, whether they be in- 
tellectual or emotional, are termed Motives, from the Latin 
word moveo, I move. The mental struggle with motives may 
be very great ; but normally it it possible to resist any motive, 
and to act in opposition to it. This possibility distinguishes 
motives from causes, and justifies the pause to which we resort. 
Accordingly, The influences that enter, bid do not iiresistibly 
determine a voluntary struggle, are termed Motives. 

Decision. The struggle with motives generally terminates 
in the voluntary selection of some alternative. This selection 
is termed a Decision, or Choice. Accordingly, The volwiiaiy 
selection of an alternative after comparing it loith others, is 
termed Decision. If there be only two alternatives, i.e., if the 



MENTAL ACTIVITY 23 

choice be limited to the selection and refusal of a course, the 
selection is termed Fiat, and the refusal, Neget. In other 
words. Fiat is positive, and Neget, negative Decision. 

Intention. The alternative selected may be something dis- 
tant in time or attainment, as political preferment. Such a 
selection is termed Intention. Accordingly, The voluntary se- 
lection of an alternative whose attainment is prospective, is termed 
Intention. It is in this sense that we intend to be graduates, 
or to become what we have not yet become. Vigorous inten- 
tion is termed Purpose, and undeviating, invincible purpose, 
is termed Resolution. It is in the latter sense that we resolve 
to be successful, whatever it may cost, and however exhaust- 
ing the struggle may prove. 

Attention. In a limited way it is possible to control our 
mental activity, i.e., to determine its course, its steadiness, and 
its continuance on the same track. In other words, we can, 
under normal conditions, determine our mental trend at any 
conscious moment of time. This exercise of voluntary power 
is of several species. (1) It may be a submission, more or 
less unflagging, to the demands of another will, as in listening 
or reading. (2) It may be devotion, more or less undeviating, 
to one interest or task, as in study or play. (3) It may be a 
transitive decision in thinking, as in the dismission of one 
thought in order to admit or continue another, as in passing 
from one study to another. The phenomena just described are 
termed Attention, from the Latin words ad, toward, and tendo, 
I stretch. Accordingly, Continuity of thought in one groove, 
especially voluntary continuity, is termed Attention. Or, the 
voluntary process of keeping the mind at work on one thing 
rather than on others, is termed Attention. Or, Thinking of 
one alternative leather than of others, is termed Attention. 

Motives are present in voluntary activity, but voluntary 
activity itself assumes the phases of decision, intention, and 
attention. 



24 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

Conclusion, The purpose of the present chapter has been 
to observe, classify, and define mental phenomena. We have 
thus arrived at the conclusion that thinking, feeling, and will- 
ing, are the possible mental phenomena, and that there are no 
other species. 

Mind. It must be evident enough to any one who observes 
himself in the concrete, that thinking, feeling, and willing, are 
not physical phenomena, i.e., phenomena of matter. In other 
words, it is not our body that thinks, feels, and wills ; it is our 
" self," the mind, or soul, or spirit. Though it be in most 
intimate junction with the body in which it dwells, the mind 
is not the " function" of the body, but a distinct entity that 
itself has functions. This assumption implies several attri- 
butes of mind. (1) If mind is not matter, it is spirit. (2) 
If mind is not matter, it is indivisible, or simple. (3) If 
mind is not matter, it cannot lose its numerical identity. (4) 
If mind is not a function, it is an entity. Accordingly, TJie 
shnjjle, spiritual entity which thinks, feels, and wills, is termed 
Mind. 

Psychology. To study mind in order to deal with it, is 
the indispensable prerequisite in pedagogy. (See the method, 
beginning of this chapter.) The problems are numerous. 
The first problem is, to observe the mental phenomena, and to 
ascertain their laws. This science is termed Psychology, from 
the Greek words psyche, soul, and logos, discourse. Accord- 
ingly, The observation of mental phenomena, and the ascertain- 
ment of their laivs, is termed Psychology. 



LAWS OF MENTAL ACTIVITY 25 

CHAPTER 11. 

LAWS OF MENTAL ACTIVITY. 

Mental activity, as experiments prove, is subject to laws, 
a knowledge of which is essential to pedagogics. 

Interaction. (I.) The activities of which the mind is capa- 
ble, as psychology teaches, are sensation, ideation, relation, emo- 
tion, and volition. The various modes of ideation, as shown in 
the preceding chapter, are perception, consciousness, abstrac- 
tion, and generalization. Memory is essential to all processes 
of ideation, and imagination is a mode of ideation in which 
the mind transforms and transcends its percepts, memories, 
concepts, etc. The two modes of relation are direct and in- 
direct judgment. 

In psychology we isolate these activities as if they were in- 
dependent individuals ; they are, however, really a constant 
complex of complements, i.e., they always either imply or 
solicit each other as phases of one entirety. Any disturbance 
in this iuteraction, as may be seen in abnormal mental action, 
interferes with the perfection of the entirety. In short, inter- 
action is a law of mental activity. 

Summation of Stimuli. (II.) The hardest sleeper awakes 
when the amount of stimulus is sufficiently increased. Who- 
ever knows how to add influences up to a certain amount can 
win the attention of the most indifferent person. A multipli- 
cation of " cues" enables us at last to come upon a forgotten 
name. A greater number of incentives or a stronger motive 
finally overcomes emotional or voluntary opposition. Ever 
cumulating considerations at last conquer the most sullen sin- 
ner and win him for God. Indeed, character and conduct 
seem to be nothing other than rational or emotional sequences 



26 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

of such summation of stimuli. In other words, mental activity 
is subject to summation of stimuli. 

Neurosis. (III.) Since perxeption is simply the interpreta- 
tion of sensations, neurosis, i.e., neural activity, must be the 
physical basis. Neurosis, as physiological psychology teaches, 
is the indispensable condition of consciousness. The physical 
basis of memory, as already shown, is neurosis. Recent ex- 
periments prove that illusion and hallucination can be brought 
about by drugs and electrical stimulation of the sensory tracts. 
This means that the nerve-tracks of perception are also the 
tracks of imagination. The fatigue that follows severe mental 
application, however abstract the thinking may be, is sufficient 
proof that neurosis accompanies the higher intellectual processes. 
All species of emotion, whether simple or complex, are attended 
by neurosis, as palpitation of the heart, pallor, trembling limbs, 
etc., clearly show. Volition is communicated to executive or- 
ganisms through neurosis. To be brief, in the present junc- 
tion of body and mind, neurosis accompanies psychosis, i.e., 
mental activity. 

Sensation. (IV.) In many cases of weak sensation, per- 
ception is correspondingly uncertain. When, for example, the 
sensations of sound or light are weak, the perception is com- 
monly faulty and incomplete. The same thing is true of 
odors, flavors, aches, etc. When, however, the sensation be- 
comes more intense and definite, the full meaning becomes 
evident. The direct variation in the proportion in question 
continues up to a point when, as in the case of violent pain, 
perception is either partial or impossible. We infer from 
these facts that, within certain limits sensation and perception 
are directly proportionate. This law of interaction harmonizes 
with the law of summation of stimuli. 

Consciousness. (V.) We hardly feel the ring that is al- 
ways on our finger. We are hardly conscious of customary 
muscular sensations. The consciousness of sensations from 



LAWS OF MENTAL ACTIVITY 27 

the special senses varies with the varying definiteness of these 
sensations. The consciousness of sensations of heat or cold, 
hunger or thirst, increases from extreme vagueness to extreme 
definiteness. There is, however, a limit to this direct propor- 
tion ; when sensations, as physical pain, become extremely in- 
tense, consciousness breaks down completely. The inference 
follows that, within certain limits sensation and consciousness are 
directly ^proportionate. This law of interaction also harmonizes 
with the law of summation of stimuli. 

Memory. (VI.) Memory, as physiological psychology 
teaches, is psychosis by means of neurosis. In this inter- 
action the body and mind, as experience shows, are mutual 
elements. In other words, memory is affected by fatigue, ill- 
ness, age, interest, exercise, and such mental reinforcements as 
imagination, judgment, etc. The quantity and quality of these 
various influences that enter into the formation of memory- 
associations determines the quantity and quality of memory- 
reproductions. In short. The character of memory-formations 
deteiinines the character of the reproductions. This interaction 
is therefore also subject to the law of summation of stimuli. 

Imagination. (VII.) Distress in the vital organs pro- 
vokes dreams, suggests illusions, etc. Latent disease influ- 
ences our waking and sleeping world. Physical habits have 
their counterparts in imagination. Mental experiences, and 
habits of thought, give direction and impulse to imagination. 
The imagination of the optimist is a beautiful world, while 
that of the pessimist is often a desert or a hell. Thus it ap- 
pears that in these various interactions imagination, like per- 
ception and memory, is subject to the law of the summation 
of stimuli. In short. The trend of imagination depends upon 
physical and mental suggestions. 

Abstraction. (VIII.) The powers of imagination defy 
description, and yet this function, too, has its absolute limits. 
It is impossible to escape the ideas of space and time in the 



28 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

operations of imagination. So, too, the ideas of number, iden- 
tity, cause, truth, beauty, and right, are always present, some 
or all of them, in the operations of imagination. Dreams, for 
example, abound in fictitious recognitions (identities), units 
and combinations (number), causes and effects. Illusion is 
apparent truth, and as such conforms with the conditions of 
truth. The conceptions of Art arise from the idea of beauty, 
and even dreams do not wholly deny conscience. In other 
words. The utmost limits of abstraction are also the limits of 
imagination. This interaction, like those already considered, 
is therefore subject to the law of the summation of stimuli. 

Identity. (IX.) Direct judgment, as psychology shows, 
presupposes the idea of identity, i.e., the distinction denoted 
by the words agreement and disagreement. The same thing 
is true of indirect judgment, or reasoning, as any one can 
prove for himself. This idea underlies all species of general- 
ization and classification, as when we assert that a Rose must 
either be or not be a plant, but that it cannot both be and not 
be a plant. The second premise of the inductive syllogism 
rests entirely on the belief that Nature reveals its genera in its 
individuals. This idea of " uniformity" is the abstraction of 
identity. Even in sesthetic and moral judgments, where the 
concrete is compared directly or indirectly with the abstract, 
i.e., the real with the ideal, the idea of identity is present in 
the same indispensable way. In logic the idea in question is 
analyzed into the axioms of thought. In short. The absb-act 
distinction of identity is indispensable to direct and indirect 
judgment. This intellectual interaction, like others, therefore 
harmonizes with the law of summation of stimuli. 

Total Interaction. (X.) Emotion, as psychology teaches, 
presupposes ideas or thoughts, as when we think of suffering- 
friends and desire to alleviate these sufferings. The ideas of 
utility, beauty, truth, and duty, seem to be the most potent to 
awaken feeling. Volition, as psychology also teaches, pre- 



LAWS OF MENTAL ACTIVITY 29 

supposes emotion, as when love prompts deeds of love. Just 
as the ideas of utility, beauty, etc., powerfully awaken feel- 
ing, so the feelings of utility, beauty, etc., powerfully solicit 
volition. Thus ideas and thoughts tend to become deeds. In 
short, Thinhing, feeling, and willing, form a natural series 
of mental activity. This interaction of the intellect, sensi- 
bility, and will, constitutes the highest summation known to 
psychology and life. 

Stages of Development. (XI.) The natural order of 
development, as inquiry tends to prove, consists of a series of 
upheavals. In this series perception, memory, imagination, 
judgment (including abstraction, generalization, and reason- 
ing), and consciousness, seem to be the intellectual stages, 
while emotion and volition struggle with each other for 
supremacy along a line of instinctive upheavals and environ- 
mental suggestions. The series in question is, however, as 
biology, etc., teaches, a " broken" line of development. In 
early life, as Lukens, Ricci, and other scientists teach us, 
blind instincts and individual impulses tend to substitute 
themselves for the logical order of adult thinking. Sur- 
prising and apparently evil tendencies break the line of the 
child's progress toward maturity. Intellectual and moral 
aptitudes apparently safe from relapse suiFer " suspended ani- 
mation." A period of physical and mental " pause," prob- 
ably for preparation, as Dr. Ellis shows, precedes the mighty 
adolescent upheaval, which, as Dr. Stanley Hall and others 
show, is probably the great birthday of maturity. Each new 
tendency comes into the series of upheavals as a " monopoly," 
and the " rate of growth" in different aptitudes is quite vari- 
able, as those who observe children cannot help seeing. Amid 
these irregularities of development, however, the series of 
monopolies, or concentrations, in tendencies and aptitudes is 
fairly constant, and may be regarded as a law. In short, 
The mind matwes by stages. 



30 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

Limits of Development. (XII.) The most surjmsing 
variations, as in size and quality of skeleton, muscles, brains, 
etc., appear in the physical endowments of man. The diifer- 
ences in mental possibilities, as statistics plainly show, are 
even greater. The genius, for example, surpasses common 
minds just as much as the total possibilities of the adult ex- 
ceed those of the infant. The difference between the " child- 
hood of the race" and its present maturity, is probably the 
most surprising thing in science. In spite of these variations, 
however, the " specific identity" of the race has remained in- 
tact for all epochs of human history. In short, The maturing 
mind encounters limits in specific constitution. 



PART II. 

PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING. 



31 



THE NATURE OF EDUCATION 33 

CHAPTER I. 

THE NATURE OF EDUCATION. 

The general features of education are conveniently treated 
under two heads : (1) The Nature of Man, and (2) The Nature 
of Education. 

A. THE NATURE OP MAN. 

The ends in view in education, as we shall see, make a 
knowledge of the nature of man absolutely indispensable. 
Two points deserve our special attention : (1) Man's Capacity 
for Improvement, and (2) The Species of Man's Capacity for 
Improvement. 

Capacity. The statistics of history, biology, etc., prove 
that man is capable of improvement, or culture, in strength 
and habit. 

Strength. (1) Systematic labor, normal in quantity and 
quality, promotes physical strength, as every one who has 
thought about the matter knows. The results of athletic 
sports and physical culture confirm these views. (2) Per- 
sistent mental exercise, normal in quantity and quality, 
strengthens the mental functions, as statistics abundantly 
prove in the case of sound minds. And much can be done 
in this respect even for " defectives," as the history of institu- 
tions for the deaf, dumb, blind, etc., shows. 

Habits. The things in which we exercise ourselves physi- 
cally or mentally become, in a sense, possessions, which are 
known as Habits, from the Latin word habeo, I possess, or 
have. Thus, for example, walking and reading, become 
habits. Among the conspicuous features of " habit" are the 
" ease" and " speed" with which we can by and by do things 
which at first were difficult and awkward. Habits continually 



34 PKINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

acquire " momentum," and this feature in connection with its 
reflex "periodicity," makes the formation of habits at the 
same time the most hopeful and the most dangerous possi- 
bility of education. The intimate interaction of sensation and 
emotion generally converts habit into " taste," or emotional 
trend, which by reflex action reinforces habit. The conver- 
sion of habit into taste is promoted by the discovery of one's 
" skill" in things which become habit. 

Species of Capacity. The improvement, or culture, of 
which man is capable, as indicated, are (1) Physical Capacity, 
and (2) Mental Capacity. 

Physical Capacity. Within the limits of specific constitu- 
tion, as statistics show, the human body is capable of amazing 
increase in strength, executive ease and speed, and artistic 
skill. The achievements of athletes, manufacturers, and artists, 
are familiar illustrations. 

Mental Capacity. Within the limits of specific constitu- 
tion, as history shows, our mental possibilities are sublime. 
(1) Through intellectual apprehension of truth, utility, beauty, 
duty, and Deity, man becomes a scientist, inventor, artist, 
moralist, and religionist. (2) Emotion solicits volition (see 
tenth law of mental activity), and thus converts theory into 
practice. (3) The possibilities of volition, as consciousness 
and history seem to affirm, are coordinate with our intellec- 
tual possibilities. In the midst of the realizations of modern 
history, the mind turns instinctively toward the attainment 
of ideals as yet only imperfectly realized. 

B. THE NATURE OF EDUCATION. 

The general character of the attainment of our possibilities 
is conveniently treated under the following heads : (1) Self- 
activity, (2) System, (3) Emancipation, (4) The Pupil's Limits, 
(5) The Ideal in Education, and (6) The Definition of Educa- 
tion. 



THE NATURE OF EDUCATION 35 

Self- Activity. Conscious effort in the evolution of possi- 
bilities is termed Self-activity. Self- activity therefore pre- 
supposes consciousness, ideals, i.e., abstract conceptions of pos- 
sibilities, and will. Man, as psychology teaches, is such a self- 
active agent. Man's capacity for self-activity, as we must 
infer from the eleventh law of mental activity, is at the same 
time both the guarantee and the general necessity in the evo- 
lution of his possibilities, i.e., in his " education." According 
to the eleventh law of mental activity, " play," i.e., instinctive 
activity, and " work," i.e., voluntary activity, are the succes- 
sive phases of self-activity. 

Play. Froebel observed that play is the activity of func- 
tions instinctively clamoring for exercise, and that we cannot 
give a satisfactory account of such activity unless it be Nature's 
provision for the earlier development of the functions of body 
and soul. The Kindergarten is simply systematic play from 
which caprice is gradually eliminated. Inasmuch as play is 
the manifestation of aptitudes, it becomes the educational key 
to the child's talent and destiny. 

Work. Absolute abandonment to spontaneous and self- 
satisfying activity, i.e., play, would in time develop into mon- 
strous caprice and arbitrariness. In that event the aging in- 
dividual would not mature into the powers, habits, tastes, and 
wisdom needed for highest happiness, character, and life. 
Therefore the child must gradually overcome his caprices and 
develop the power of useful and moral self-subordination. In 
this obedience to imperatives of utility, necessity, or duty, the 
pupil is no longer a creature of impulse, but a conscious and 
intentional agent in his own destiny. In short, I. Self-activity 
is the basis of education. 

Supervision. The immaturity of the child (see the elev- 
enth law of mental activity) makes authoritative supervision 
over the pupil's activity an absolute educational necessity. 
This necessary system of authoritative supervision over pupils 



36 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

is termed " Teaching." The teacher's work consists of three 
things (1) Adaptation of Tasks, (2) Stimulation, and (3) Di- 
rection. 

Adaptation of Tasks. (1) In consequence of the pupil's 
relative weakness (see the eleventh law of mental activity), 
the pupil's tasks must be adapted to stages of development. 
The stages of physical, instinctive, acquisitive, and productive 
" monopoly," must be respected in the pupil. (2) The pupil's 
tasks must also be adapted to some extent to special tastes and 
talents, since these are generally correlatives, and in the main 
constitute the pupil's individuality, God's creative impress, 
and man's inalienable guarantee of success in something or 
other. 

Stimulation. In consequence of tardiness and inhibitions in 
the appearance of aptitudes, the pupil needs a stimulus to self- 
activity. The "concrete," as statistics show, is the most 
eifective stimulus in earlier, and the " abstract" in later years. 
Ignorance in these matters incapacitates the teacher. 

Direction. In addition to stimulus, the pupil needs a 
teacher's direction. (1) The ordinary pupil wastes his ener- 
gies and loses his way. In conflict with difficulties, the pupil 
needs suggestions, hints, illustrations, questions, etc. (2) In 
the crises along the broken line of his development (see the 
eleventh law of mental activity), the pupil needs special 
supervision, and sympathetic support. The greatest perils 
and at the same time the greatest opportunities belong to the 
Kindergarten epoch, to the period of pause before adolescence, 
and to the adolescent upheaval. (3) Among the most impor- 
tant things to the pupil's welfare is effective interaction of 
body and mind. (See the second and third laws of mental 
activity.) It therefore devolves on the teaclier to combine 
the best physical conditions with the pupil's mental tasks. 
Accordingly, II. Authoritative supervision is the necessary sup- 
plement of the pupil's self -activity. 



THE NATURE OF EDUCATION 37 

Emancipation. The trend of the child's natural develop- 
ment (see the eleventh law of mental activity) and practical 
necessity, suggest and require gradual release from the teacher's 
authority. It is along this line that teachers are likely to 
make the most irreparable mistakes. 

(1) For a time the old bird feeds and tends and guards her 
young with utmost atteutiveness. By and by, however, the 
little proteges, being "full-fledged," are made to shift for 
themselves, and their tutelage ends. 

(2) So, too, there comes a time when boys and girls attain 
to their " majority," and are said to be " of age." Until then 
they remain the proteges of others, their tutelage being pre- 
paratory. Thenceforward they are to shift for themselves, 
and, taking their place among equals, to work out a worthy 
destiny in their own way. They may, and will, if they be 
wise, still value and even seek the counsel of otliers, but need 
not abide by it from necessity. They may, if they see fit, sub- 
mit to authority from without, but cannot strictly, as hitherto, 
be required to do so. 

(3) The transition here described is the one toward which 
true education must tend, and for which it must prepare. 
Otherwise it fails to connect " School" with " Life," and, to 
that serious extent, fails in its function. It is, however, only 
when boys and girls can really bo expected to help themselves 
and to govern themselves that they should attain to freedom 
from necessary subjection to others. Assuming that they can 
help themselves and govern themselves, the world thencefor- 
ward holds them accountable. They should not be liberated too 
soon, lest they go astray, nor too suddenly, lest they be unable 
to preserve their balance, nor too late, lest it be impossible for 
them ever to stand alone. Their happiness, virtue, and suc- 
cess, are at stake. Accordingly, III. Gradual 7'elease from 
authoritative supervision must jjrepare the pupil for self-super- 
vision. 



38 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

Limitations. (1) The oak exists in smaller proportions in 
the acorn, and is nothing other than that for which provision 
had been made in the acorn. So, too, it is impossible to de- 
velop powers, habits, tastes, or wisdom, for which the Creator 
has not made provision in the original constitution of a man 
(eleventh law). (2) Many cannot attain to those powers, 
habits, tastes, and wisdom, for which provision was made in 
their original constitution, for several reasons, (a) their health 
does not allow it ; (6) their leisure is limited by poverty, busi- 
ness, or some one's adverse control ; and (c) their environ- 
ment for too long a period of years does not inspire and 
prompt to those efforts which, as suggested by the eleventh 
law of mental activity, are essential to the pupil's progress. 
(3) Others cannot attain to the best results in education, be- 
cause they become the proteges of supervisors and governors 
who do not understand their function, or, understanding it, 
fail to mind their business. Accordingly, IV. The pupiVs 
limitations should he removed as much as possible. 

The Ideal in Education. (1) The perfection of our Crea- 
tor's character ; the immortality of essential humanity ; and 
human capacity for happiness, are assumptions justified by 
reason and experience. The capacity for happiness, moreover, 
is a persistent endowment of the human race. Thinking of 
this endowment in connection with the perfect character of our 
Maker, we cannot avoid the conclusion that man is meant for 
ultimate happiness. This destiny of happiness, however, is con- 
ditional, i.e., there must be adequate preparation for it in Time. 
Accordingly, ultimate happiness is to be an ideal (purpose) of 
humanity. (Eleventh and twelfth laws of mental activity.) 

(2) The universal distinction of right and wrong, in con- 
nection with ability to will the right and wrong ; the promo- 
tion of virtue and duty by Christianity ; the responsibility of 
human beings to their Maker and to each other ; and the re- 
quirement of virtue for real happiness, are assumptions justi- 



THE NATURE OF EDUCATION 39 

fied by reason and experience. These assumptions lead to the 
unavoidable conclusion that man is meant for a moral destiny. 
Accordingly, virtue is to be an ideal of humanity. (Elev- 
enth and twelfth laws of mental activity.) 

(3) Reason and experience justify the following additional 
assumptions : (a) The present powers of man are such as to 
fit him for " complete living" in Time, i.e., man is so con- 
stituted a junction of body and spirit as to make " human 
affairs" a possibility, a pleasure, a duty, or even a necessity ; 
(6) the realization of this temporal destiny is conditional, 
i.e., it depends on adequate accommodation to the environ- 
ment of this life as well as on efficient use of this environ- 
ment. Thinking of human constitution and its fitness in tem- 
poral environment, we come to the unavoidable conclusion 
that man is meant also for a destiny in which the great prob- 
lems are those of livelihood, home, education, government, 
and so forth, i.e., a temporal destiny. Accordingly, "com- 
plete living" in Time is to be an ideal of humanity. (Elev- 
enth and twelfth laws of mental activity.) 

Thus it follows that there are three great ends (goals) of 
life, three ideals (purposes) of humanity. But education is es- 
sentially progression toward these ideals (hopes) of humanity. 
Accordingly, V. The ultimate objects of education are happi- 
ness, virtue, and " complete equipment ^ for life. 

Definition of Education. From the foregoing considera- 
tions, based almost wholly on the laws of mental activity, and 
especially on the eleventh and twelfth laws, we can construct 
an inductive definition of education. Thus, VI. Tlie realiza- 
tion of man's possibilities, through systematized self-activity, for 
complete living, is termed Education. The term is derived from 
the Latin words e, out, and duco, I lead, and thus refers us to 
the fundamental fact in education, namely, that exercise, or 
self-activity, promotes development. It serves our pedagogic 
purposes to consider the species of education. 



40 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

Species of Education. The number of man's powers and 
the ends to be kept in view in the cultivation of these powers, 
determine the possible species of education. 

(1) Physical education has to do with the body, and aims to 
make it a fit abode and instrument of the spirit. As a means 
to these ends a training in physiology and physical culture are 
indispensable. 

(2) Intellectual education has to do with the thinking and 
knowing powers of the mind, and aims to develop these pow- 
ers into fit instruments of life. As a means to this end, both 
general and special courses of study are necessary. 

(3) Moral education has to do with character-building. As 
a means to this end the pupil's will must be subordinated to the 
ideas of utility, beauty, duty, and religion. The correspond- 
ing subordinate species of moral education are termed practi- 
cal, aesthetic, social, and religious. The most effective stim- 
lus in moral education is religion, which consists of faith in 
God, love to God and man, and obedience to God. All species 
of moral education begin in the intellect, and the correspond- 
ing emotions thus waked up solicit the will. As means to the 
ends of moral education the pupil needs a training in the use- 
ful arts and sciences, in the fine arts, and in personal, social, 
and religious virtues. 



PRINCIPLES OF CULTURE 41 



CHAPTER 11. 

PRINCIPLES OF CULTURE. 

It is possible, as experiments prove, to promote the develop- 
ment of which the pupil is capable. In other words, activi- 
ties can be quickened, strength increased, habits and tastes 
improved, and knowledge matured. In this work the teacher 
must conform with certain laws, to which, as history, anthro- 
pology, and biology teach us, the pupil's natural development 
is subject. The general truths in question are termed Prin- 
ciples of Culture. 

Exercise. I. Exercise increases the activity of the pianist's 
fingers and the strength of the blacksmith's arm. Habits are 
formed by exercise in that which is to become habit. Habits 
generally become tastes. Thus, within the limits of design, as 
expressed in our constitution, exercise tends to promote devel- 
opment. The remarkable thing about this law of exercise is 
its generality, i.e., its exceptions are very few when the exercise 
is normal in quality, quantity, and time. Nevertheless, this 
law of exercise, as biology teaches, has limitations. Swal- 
lows kept caged until after their usual time for learning to 
fly, and then released, fly readily. The feats are the devel- 
oped results of forces which "ripen internally at approxi- 
mately definite times." Genius, like the powers of the swal- 
low's wings, tends to ripen somewhat independent of exercise. 
The indications are that many aptitudes of body and mind, in- 
cluding instincts and appetites, ripen at approximately definite 
times as the result of special endowment and hereditary mo- 
mentum. But these facts do not invalidate the law in ques- 
tion, since exercise generally, perhaps always, promotes apti- 



42 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

tudes and tendencies which appear in this way. In short, 
exercise promotes development. 

Correlation. II. The interactions required by the law 
of summation, as stated in the laws of mental activity, are 
evidently the primary requirement of mental exercise. In 
short, the natural correlation of mental activities is the condition 
of successfd development. This general requirement resolves 
itself into the following special requirements. 

Perception. Definiteness of sensation, according to the 
fourth law of mental activity, is the primary requirement in 
the development of perception. Obedience to this require- 
ment will stimulate interest and therefore quicken activity. 
The ideal ends iu view, i.e., activity, reliability, and interest, 
are thus attained. 

Consciousness. Voluntary self-observation, according to 
the fifth law of mental activity, is the primary requirement in 
the development of consciousness. Obedience to this require- 
ment will enable the pupil in due time to make "self" an 
" object of thought," just as the external world is his object of 
perception. The ideal ends in view, i.e., the power and habit 
of introspection, are thus developed. 

Memory. Effective interaction of body and mind, accord- 
ing to the sixth law of mental activity, is the primary re- 
quirement in the cultivation of memory. In other words, the 
desired quantity and quality of memory-reproductions can be 
secured only by such reinforcements iu memory-associations 
as physical vigor, interest and attention, frequent repetition, 
logical suggestions, imagination, etc. Obedience to these re- 
quirements will result in definite, persistent, and suggestive 
association tracks. The ideal ends in view, i.e., economic 
memory-associations and reliable memory-reproductions, will 
be thus attained. 

Imagination. Physical and mental suggestion, according to 
the seventh and eighth laws of mental activity, is the special 



PRINCIPLES OF CULTURE 43 

requirement in the cultivation of the imagination. In other 
words, sensation, perception, and memory, must be made effi- 
cient furnishing agents in the structures of imagination, while 
exercise in the ideas of space, time, beauty, duty, and truth, 
will serve as mighty stimuli. The understanding, too, should 
be called into the service of imagination. Obedience to these 
requirements will strengthen and purify imagination. The 
ideal ends in view, i.e., service to art, literature, science, inven- 
tion, etc., will thus be attained. 

Thought. Generalization, according to the first law of 
mental activity, begins in abstraction, but presupposes the 
other modes of ideation, and implies the two modes of thought. 
Without "thought," as psychology teaches, generalization 
would be impossible. Ideation and relation, therefore, are 
the complementary requirements in the development of these 
processes. In other words, the cultivation of perception, con- 
sciousness, memory, imagination, judgment, and reasoning, 
promote the development of abstraction and generalization. 
The ideas of space, time, cause, identity, utility, beauty, duty, 
and truth deserve special attention. Obedience to these re- 
quirements will not only stimulate and strengthen the mind 
in these higher processes, but also make it its own critic. The 
ideal ends in view, i.e., activity, ability, and self-reliance, will 
thus be within the pupil's reach. 

Sensibility. In the cultivation of the " heart," it is desira- 
ble, according to the fifth general principle of education, to 
develop right feelings into motives of conduct, and to subdue 
such feelings as interfere with man's happiness, usefulness, 
and morality. These ends can be attained, according to the 
tenth law of mental activity, by exercising the feelings in 
junction with the intellect and will. In other words, the 
pupil's feelings must lie subordinated to the ideas of utility, 
beauty, duty, and truth. The pupil must be made to see the 
importance of such discipline. Like Fenelon and Pestalozzi, 



44 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

the teacher must invent and utilize all sorts. of situations in 
the pupil's discipline. Even the physical conditions and en- 
vironments of the pupil must be utilized in the cultivation of 
his feelings. 

Will. Subordination to the highest interests of humanity, 
is the right ideal in the cultivation of the will. This end 
must be attained, according to the tenth law of mental activity, 
by exercising the will in junction with the intellect and the feel- 
ings. In other words, the ideas of utility, beauty, duty, and 
truth, must be developed into ideals, the corresponding feel- 
ings must become motives to right conduct, and the habit of 
pausing long enough to decide intelligently between doubtful 
alternatives must take the place of impulse and caprice. When 
evil ideas and tendencies are present, the will needs the mo- 
mentum of right habit and the stimulus of good example. 
The development of right intentions is probably the most 
effective stimulus to the important habit of attention. The 
physical conditions and environments of the pupil must also 
be utilized in the cultivation of the will. 

Concentration. III. According to the fifth general prin- 
ciple of education, the best possibilities are the ends in view in 
culture. These ends, according to the tenth law of mental 
activity, can be attained in part at least by exercising all 
functions in their natural junction. But, according to the 
eleventh law of mental activity, these })0ssibilities cannot all 
be realized at once. In other words, tlie series of ripening ten- 
dencies and aptitudes suggest a series of concentrations in exer- 
cise. It is, accordingly, of utmost importance, to make every 
pupil a " special" study, since the tendencies and aptitudes in 
qu(!stiou do not rij)cn exactly in the same order and the same 
way in all pupils. 

Limits. IV. According to the twelfth law of mental ac- 
tivity, the limits of the pupil's development are not only racial 
hut individual. The ideal teacher must therefore make each 



PRINCIPLES OF CULTURE 45 

pupil his special study. This requirement makes "child 
study" the most important movement in the history of educa- 
tion. Apart from such study, the " school" will crush ordi- 
nary individualities under a load of impossible tasks, and im- 
prison genius in " grades" made by hand. In short, the pupil's 
tasks must be adapted to his individuality. 



46 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

CHAPTER III. 

THE NATURE OF KNOWLEDGE. 

Ideas and thoughts that are true, are termed Knowledge. 
Thoughts that are true of some individuals of a genus, or of 
instances, are termed Particular Truths, or Facts, as, Many 
people love music. Thoughts that are true of all the indi- 
viduals of a genus, or of all instances, are termed General 
Truths, or Principles, as. All hoi'ses are vertebrates. Truths 
whose exceptions are few or unimportant, though not abso- 
lutely universal, are also termed general truths. Ideas and 
thouglits (facts and principles) at which the mind arrives with- 
out system in process or product, constitute Common Know- 
ledge. Facts and principles at which the mind arrives by 
observation, induction, and deduction, and which it organizes 
into a system, constitute Scientific Knowledge, or Science. 
The sciences that begin with perceptions, are termed Em- 
pirical Sciences, as Botany and Chemistry. The sciences that 
start with consciousness, are termed Rational Sciences, as 
Psychology. 

A. SPECIES OF KNOWLEDGE. 

The two species of " Being" known to man are flatter and 
3Iind. Matter occupies space and exists in time. Repetition 
in matter and time, gives rise to number. The science of 
space and number, or, the science of quantity, is termed 
Mathematics. The presence of various physical and vital 
forces in matter, gives rise to Physical and Biological Sciences. 
The physical and biological sciences are together termed Nat- 
ural Sciences. The presence of mind in living, organized 
beings gives rise to the Psychological, or Mental Sciences. 
The preceding catalogue exhausts all possibilities of logical 
division. Thus it appears that all sciences can be classified 



THE NATURE OF KNOWLEDGE 47 

into three or four comprehensive species: (1) Mathematical 
Sciences ; (2) Natural Sciences ; and (3) Mental Sciences. 
The synthesis of sciences into a system of ultimate generaliza- 
tions is termed Philosophy. 

Mathematics. There are several special departments in 
mathematics. (1) The science of form and extension is termed 
Geometry. Trigonometry is the practical application of geom- 
etry. (2) The science of numbers is termed Arithmetic. (3) 
The general science of quantity is termed Algebra. Calculus 
is a highly developed form of algebra. 

Natural Sciences. There are many special problems, and 
therefore many special departments, in the study of physical 
Nature. 

Physical Sciences. The presence of various physical forces 
gives rise to the Physical Sciences. (1) The science of molec- 
ular forces is termed Physics, or Natural Philosophy. Physics 
presupposes mathematics. (2) The science of atomic forces is 
termed Chemistry. Chemistry presupposes mathematics and 
physics. (3) The science of the properties and formation of 
minerals is termed Mineralogy. Mineralogy presupposes 
mathematics, physics, and chemistry. (4) The science of the 
formation of the earth is termed Geology. Geology presup- 
poses mathematics, physics, chemistry, and mineralogy. (5) 
The science of the heavenly bodies is termed Astronomy. 
Astronomy presupposes mathematics, physics, chemistry, etc. 

Biological Sciences. The presence of various life-forces in 
organized beings gives rise to the Biological sciences. (1) 
The science of plant-life is termed Botany. Botany presup- 
poses mathematics and physical sciences. (2) The science of 
animal-life is termed Zoology. Zoology presupposes mathe- 
matics, the physical sciences, and botany. (3) The science of 
the physical life of man is termed Physiology. Its depart- 
ments are very many. Physiology presupposes mathematics, 
the physical sciences, botany, and zoology. 



48 PKINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

Geography. The science of the earth as man's habitat is 
termed Geography. Geography is to a very great extent an 
eclectic science, its subjects of study being found within the 
domain of the natural sciences and history. 

Mental Sciences. The presence of mind in living, organ- 
ized beings gives rise to the Mental Sciences. 

Intellect. The intellect is the subject of several sciences. 
(1) The science of the phenomena of consciousness is termed 
Psychology. Psychology presupposes mathematics, physics, 
chemistry, physiology, etc. Thus arise psychophysics, pathol- 
ogy, physiological psychology, etc. (2) The science of formal 
reasoning is termed Logic. Logic presupposes psychology, etc. 

Feeling. As " truth" is the end of intellect, so is " pro- 
priety" the heart's chief object. This relation gives rise to 
jEsthetics, the science of the Beautiful. (1) The science of de- 
lineation is termed Drawing. (2) The science of constructing 
buildings is termed Architecture. (3) The science of repre- 
senting ideals in stone, etc., is termed Sculpture. (4) The 
science of representation by means of form and color is termed 
Painting. (5) The science of melody and harmony is termed 
Music. These sciences generally follow, while common knowl- 
edge precedes, the corresponding Arts. 

Will. The will is the determinative element in several sci- 
ences. (1) The science of events is termed History. The two 
departments of history are Chronology and the Philosophy of 
History. (2) The science of morality is termed Ethics, or 
Moral Philosophy. 

Language. Language is the product of the whole mind 
rather than of intellect, feeling, or will. The mind expresses 
its ideas, thoughts, feelings, and volitions by means of words, 
sentences, and discourse. (1) The history of words is termed 
Etymology. Philology in a species of Etymology. (2) The 
science of the ]>hysical structure of words is termed Orthog- 
raphy. Orthography presupjjoses etymology, etc. (3) The 



THE NATURE OF KNOWLEDGE 49 

science of the sentence is termed Grammar. Grammar pre- 
supposes etymology, orthography, etc. (4) The science of dis- 
course is termed Rhetorio. Rhetoric presupposes grammar, 
logic, etc. (5) The interpretation of discourse is termed 
Reading. (6) The construction of discourse is termed Com- 
position. (7) The science of the structure of alphabetic letters 
is termed Peyimanship. 

Theology. The science of God is termed Theology. The- 
ology is properly classified as a mental science, and presup- 
poses all other sciences. The study of God's works in order 
to know God is termed Natural Theology. The study of God's 
Word in order to know God is termed Revealed Theology. Re- 
ligion is theology in the concrete. 

Arts. The physical construction of knowledge is termed 
Art. Thus we speak of the arts of penmanship, drawing, 
music, painting, architecture, printing, agriculture, etc. Those 
arts whose chief end is Beauty are termed Fine Arts, as music 
and sculpture. Those arts whose chief end is Utility, are 
termed Useful Arts, as agriculture and manufacturing. 

B. THE PSYCHOLOGY OP SCIENCE. 

There are three steps in the process of science: (1) Idea- 
tion ; (2) Direct Relation of Ideas ; and (3) Syllogism. 

Ideation. In the present junction of body and mind sen- 
sation and consciousness are the presuppositions of knowledge. 
The process of referring sensations to physical impacts as 
causes is termed Perception. Selective attention to agreements 
between compared experiences of consciousness follows and 
is termed Abstraction. Memory is always indispensable. 
Cumulative conception follows abstraction and is termed Ap- 
perception, or Generalization. Apperception is the mind's 
appropriation and conception of the agreements and common 
qualities in the mass of its experiences of individuals. The 
resulting concept represents the mind's conquest of a subject 

4 



50 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

up to that moment. If the experiences in question are per- 
ceptions apperception is external ; if they are experiences of 
consciousness apperception is internal. Apperception is more 
commonly termed Generalization, though the terms do not 
denote absolutely the same thing. Classification, the group- 
ing of individuals on the ground of agreements, follows gen- 
eralization. Complete generalization is the ultimate stage of 
ideation. The perfection of the process depends upon the 
perfection of the mind's experiences. Perfect observation is, 
therefore, the first requisite in the development of a science. 
The necessary supplements are memory and imagination. 

The Direct Relation of Ideas. Comparison of ideas fol- 
lows ideation and is termed Judgment, as, James is a pupil. 
In this example the ideas compared were James and pupil, 
and the relation discovered was that of Identity. The oppo- 
site, or negative relation, is termed Difference. The process 
generally amounts to the synthesis or classification of indi- 
viduals, or the analysis of a genus. Sometimes, however, the 
subject and the predicate of a judgment have the same extent, as, 
London is the capital of England. The perfection of judginent, 
or the direct relation of ideas, depends upon the perfection of 
the ideas compared and the power of comparison. Perfect judg- 
ment is the second requisite in the development of a science. 

Syllogism. Syllogism, the derivation of a judgment from 
the relation of two judgments, follows simple judgment, and 
is the final process of science. (1) In this final process science 
becomes a system of introductory and ultimate syllogisms. 
The introductory syllogism of science is inductive ; the ulti- 
mate syllogism is deductive. The former process is a transi- 
tion from individuals to the genus ; the second is a passage 
from the genus to its individuals. Sometimes, however, the 
argument amounts ordy to Traduction, the quantity of the 
conclusion being the same as that of the original judgment. 
(2) The Syllogistic process of science presupposes certain fun- 



THE NATURE OF KNOWLEDGE §1 

damental though inductive judgments termed " Laws of 
Thought," because all persons without exception are subject 
to them in their intellectual operations. (3) The perfection of 
syllogism depends, of course, upon the perfection of the prem- 
ises, the perfect cognition of their relation, and perfect obe- 
dience to the laws of thought. Logical perfection is, there- 
fore, the third requisite in the development of a science. (For 
a complete description of the syllogism and scientific method, 
the student is referred to some text-book on Logic.) 

Specijie Syllogistic Features of the Sciences. The second prem- 
ise of inductions in Mathematics is much stronger than that of 
the natural and mental sciences. 

(1) The second premise in mathematics, with a few excep- 
tions in arithmetic, passes from several experienced individuals 
to the genus, and leads to a universal conclusion that reaches 
beyond all possible experience, and yet the conclusion is evi- 
dently valid because the individuals involved are absolutely 
similar by hypothesis. When, for example, it has been found 
that the sum of the angles of one triangle is two right angles, 
the conclusion that the sum of the angles of any triangle is two 
right angles follows irresistibly because the second premise con- 
tains the truth that the one triangle is a sample of all triangles. 

(2) The experienced individuals from which the second prem- 
ise of natural science inductions passes to the genus, are not 
always " representative individuals." It follows that the uni- 
versal conclusions at which natural sciences thus arrive may 
sometimes be fallacious. The history of the natural sciences is 
in great part a record of such conclusions. Great experience 
is, therefore, a requisite in the construction of a natural science. 

(3) In the inductions of the mental sciences the gratuitous 
factor is even more troublesome than in the natural sciences, 
the totals being ideals rather than realities, qualities rather 
than quantities. 

(4) In the inductions of Philosophy, this term being used 



52 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

in the sense of ultimate generalizations, the gratuitous factor 
of the second premise is the dominant factor. Encyclopedic 
knowledge and logical competency are, therefore, the great 
necessities in the construction of philosophy. 

Note. The lines of thought just tracked in the description 
of the sciences are the lines of thought which the nature of the 
mind requires in their order, and they exhaust the possibilities 
of the mind. The stupendous inference follows, that scientific 
conclusions are often rather probable than demonstrative, i.e., 
an appeal to faith rather than sight. 



C. COURSES OP STUDIES. 

The correlation of the sciences (see Species of Knowledge) 
and the mental stages in the development of a science (see 
the Psychology of the Sciences), together with the demands 
of life, must obviously determine the courses of studies in our 
schools. 

Correlation. In the section on " Species of Knowledge" 
the attention of the reader was called to the interdependence 
of the sciences. In other words, it is impossible to develop 
any science without calling into service many others. In- 
deed, all the sciences are related to each other somewhat like 
the members of the human body, so that all parts serve all 
other parts and contribute to the perfection of the whole. 
This interesting and important communion of the species of 
knowledge is termed Correlation. Courses of study should, 
of course, be so planned as to recognize this correlation of 
branches. 

Concentration. Some branches can be studied to advan- 
tage at earlier periods in the pupil's career, and others at later 
times, and these branches, as educators believe, are also the 
best means of culture at the time. Branches in which imi- 
tation and association are the most important factors, as 



i 



THE NATURE OF KNOWLEDGE 53 

spelling, pronunciation, writing, etc., should therefore receive 
special attention in the lower grades, and those branches in 
which the discovery of relations is the indispensable factor, as 
grammar, history, arithmetic, etc., should receive special atten- 
tion in higher grades. The purpose of such " concentration" 
on some branch or group of branches is obvious ; it is designed 
to be to the advantage of the study while it catches each men- 
tal function at its high tide of possibility. (Eleventh law of 
mental activity.) 

Utility. Although " correlation" and " concentration" of 
studies should always be the dominant ideas in the con- 
struction of courses of study, the needs of life require that 
programmes be somewhat adjusted to meet the demands of 
our times. If one end in view in education is equipment for 
life, the necessary means to this end must be introduced into 
our schools. 

Catalogue of Studies. The catalogue of studies on page 
55 is designed to exhibit the " correlation," " concentration," 
and practical adaptability of studies for pupils of three grades, 
the grades arising from the degrees of complexity in the studies 
proposed for the respective grades. 

Elementary Course. The "Report of the Committee of 
Fifteen," being in substantial agreement with our catalogue, 
distributes the branches of the Elementary Course over eight 
years. (See pages 56 and 57.) 

Elementary and Secondary Courses. It is believed, how- 
ever, that the " Committee" fails to do justice to Numbers, 
Spelling Books, Mental Arithmetic, Geometry, and Manual 
Training. The "Report of the Committee on Secondary 
Education in Pennsylvania" contains a programme of the 
Elementary and the Secondary Courses, both very much in 
harmony with the present chapter. It will serve to point out 
the relation of these grades, and is therefore inserted opposite 
page 58. 



54 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

Programmes. Dr. E. E. White suggests the excellent pro- 
gramme given on page 58 for schools of three grades. It 
satisfies the requirements of the present chapter, and deserves 
thorough mastery. 



THE NATURE OF KNOWLEDGE 



55 



Elementary CorKSE (6-14). 


Secondary Course (14-22). 


UNmatsiTY. 


Primary Grammar 
Grades. Grades. 


High School. College. 




Reading. 


Grammar. 


General Grammar. 


Spelling. 


Rhetoric. 


Languages. 


Writing. 


Composition. 


Philology. 


Language Lessons. 


Literature. 


Psychology. 


Grammar. 


English Cla.s,sics. 


Logic. 


Dictionary. 


Latin. 


Theology. 


Arithmetic — 


Foreign Languages. 


Philosophy. 


1. Written. 


Philology. 


Etc. 


2. Mental. 


Psychology. 




Beginners' Algebra. 


Logic. 




Forms. Beginners' Geometry. 


Natural Theology. 




Object Lessons. 


Higher Arithmetic. 


Special Mathematics. 


Natural History. 


Bookkeeping. 


Philosophy of Mathe- 


Physiology. 


Algebra. 


matics. 


Geography— 


Calculus. 


Etc. 


1. Political. 


Geometry- 




2. Physical. 


Plane, Solid, Spherical. 




Singing. 


Trigonometry. 




Drawing. 


Analytical Geometrj'. 




Physical Culture. 


Geography. 


Natural Sciences. 


Manual Training. 


Physics. 




Biography. 


Chemistry. 




Travels. 


Biology. 




History. 


Geology. 
Astronomy. 

Meteorology. 






Fine Arts. 


Art. 




^Isthetics. 






Physical Culture. 






Manual Training. 






Mythology. 






History— 






U. S., General, Universal. 


Philosophy of History. 




Civics. 


Etc. 




Economics. 





Explanation.— For time distribution, see next page. 



56 



PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 



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THE NATURE OF KNOWLEDGE 



57 





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58 



PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 



THREE-GKADE PROGRAMME. 



Closing 
Time 


Min- 
utes. 


Primary (C). 


Secondary (B). 


Advanced (A). 


9.10 


10 


Opening Exercises. 


9.35 


25 


Seat Work.* 


Arithmetic. 


Arithmetic. 


10.00 


25 


Number (on slate or 
with objects). 


Arithmetic. 


Geography. 


10.25 


25 


Number. 


Geography. 


Geography. 


10.45 


20 


Form Work (paper 
folding, stick lay- 
ing, etc.). 


Geography. 


Geography. 


10.55 


10 


Recess. 


11.15 


20 


Silent Reading. 


Geography. 


Grammar. 


11.35 


20 


Reading and Spelling. 


Form Work (map 
drawing, sand 
moulding, etc.). 


Grammar. 


12.00 


25 


Excused from school. 


Reading. 


Grammar. 






Noon Intermission. 


1.10 


10 


* 


* 


* 


1.30 


20 


Form Work (clay mod- 
elling , paper cutting , 
etc.). 


Reading. 


Reading. 


1.50 


20 


Silent Reading. 


Seat Work.* 


Reading. 


2.10 


20 


Reading and Spelling. 


Animal or Plant 

Study. 


U. S. History or Physi- 
ology. 


2.40 


30 


Writing'^ or Language.^ 


Writing^ or Language. 


Writing^ or Language.' 


2.50 


10 


Recess. 


3.10 


20 


Number (on slate or 
with objects). 


Spelling. 


U. S. History or Physi- 
ology. 


3.35 


25 


Draivinfi,- Singing,^ or 
Moral Instruction.^ 


Drawing,- Singing,- or 
Moral InstruclimiJ 


Draiving,^ Sivging," or 
Moral Instruction.^ 


3.50 


15 


Excused from school. 


Spelling. 


Spelling. 


4.00 


10 




Arithmetic. 


Spelling. 



* As may be provided for by the teacher. 

Notes. — The small figures at right indicate the number of lessons a week. United 
States History may be taught the first half of the session, and Physiology the second 
half; or each branch may have two lessons a week. On Friday the last 25 minutes 
may be devoted to instruction in hygiene, temperance, physics, natural hi^story, etc. 



year. 
13-14. 



1. Latin 



now the 



Secondary School.— High School or Academy. 



9th year. 
Age, 14-15. 



5 p. a wk. 



2. GREEK^*e^"o'"e ^^'^eek. 



3. EnglisP' ^ P- ^ 



4. MODERN ^^ 



or 
•h, 3 p. a 

t least. 



M-™fp.^x'r: 



6. PHYSici^easure- 



7. NATiTRiials ; the 



8. HisTOH^nd Ro- 
1 History, 



wk. 



Literature, 3 p. 

a wk. 
Composition, 2 

p. a wk. 



The lang:uage 
begun below, 
4 p. a wk. 



Algebra, 
wk. 



5 p. a 



10th year. 
Age, 15-16. 



5 p. a wk. 



5 p. a wk. 



Literature, 3 p. a 
wk. Composi- 
tion, 2 p. a wk. 



The same lan- 
guage, 4 p. a wk. 
Second lan- 
guage, 4 p. a wk. 



Algebra or Book- 
ie e e p i ng and 
Commercial 
Arithmetic, '2}4 
p. a wk. Geom- 
etry, 23^ p. a wk. 



Elective Astronomy, 5 p. a wk. 12 
wks. 



11th year. 
Age, i6-l7. 



5 p. a wk. 



4 p. a wk. 



Literature, 3 p. a 
wk. Composi- 
tion, 1 p. a wk. 
Rhetoric, 1 p. a 
wk. 



The same lan- 
guage, 4 p. a A\k. 
Second lan- 
guage, 4 p. a wk. 



Algebra or Book- 
keeping and 
Commercial 
Arithmetic, 23 2 
p. a wk. Geom- 
etry, 23^ p. a wk. 



Chemistry, 5 p. a 
wk. 



12th year. 
Age, 17-18. 



5 p. a wk. 



4 p. a wk. 



Literature, 3 p. a 
wk. Composi- 
tion, 1 p. a wk. 
Grammar, 1 p. a 
wk. 



The same lan- 
guage, 4 p. a wk. 
Second 1 ;; n- 
guage, 4 p. a wk. 



Trigonometry and 
higher Algebra 
for candidates 
for s c i e n t i ti c 
schools. 



Physics, 5 p. a wk. 



One yr. (which yr. not specified) 5 p. a wk. for botany and zoology. Half-yr. 
(late in course), anatomy, physiology, and hygiene, 5 p. a wk. 



French History, 
3 p. a wk. 



English History, 3 
p. a wk. 



9 GEOGR^'''?^aP^y' geolo.gy, or meteorology at some part 
high school course ; possibly more than one of 
here election is allowed.) 



American History, 
3 p. a wk. 



Elective Meteorol- 
ogy, }4 this year 
or next. 



A special period 
intensively, and 
Civil Govern- 
ment, 3 p. a wk. 



Elective Geology 
or Physiography, 
\4 year. 



k ; yr. = year. 



1 


Elementary Grades.— Primary and Grammar School. 


Secondary School.— High School or Academy, 


Subjects. 


1st year. 
Age, 6-7. 


2d year. 
Age, 7-8. 


3d year. 
Age, 8-9. 


4th year. 
Age, 9-10. 


5th year. 
Age, 10-11. 


6th year. 
Age, 11-12. 


7th year. 
Age, 12-13. 


8th vear. 
Age, 13-14. 


9th year. 

Age, 14-15. 


10th year. 
Age, 15-16. 


11th year. 
Age, 16-17. 


12th year. 
Age, 17-18. 












Reasons given for beginning Latin earlier than is now the 
custom. 


5 p. a wk. 


5 p. a wk. 


5 p. a wk. 


5 p. a wk. 


1. IjATIN 
























Latin to be begun a year before Greek. 


5 p. a wk. 


4 p. a wk. 


4 p. a wk. 
















Q l?vr:TTSH 


Pupils to reproduce 
orally stories told 
them, to invent sto- 
ries, and describe 
objects. 


Supplementary reading begun— and continued 
through all the grades. Composition begun— 
writing narratives and descriptions— oral and 
written exercises on forms and the sentence. 


From this grade 
no reader to be 
used. 


Grammar, 3 p. a 
wk. 


Literature, 3 p. 

a wk. 
Composition, 2 

p. a wk. 


Literature, 3 p. a 
wk. Composi- 
tion, 2 p. a wk. 


Literature, 3 p. a 
wk. Composi- 
tion, 1 p. a wk. 
Rhetoric, 1 p. a 
wk. 


Literature, 3 p. a 
wk. Composi- 
tion, 1 p. a wk. 
Grammar, 1 p. a 
wk. 




4. MnnRUN TjANGTTages . . 










Elective 
German or 
French, 5 
p. a wk. 


Elective 
German or 
Frentih, 4 
p. a wk. 


Elective 
German or 
French, 3 p. a 
wk. at least. 


Elective 
German or 
French, 3 p. a 
wk. at least. 


The language 
begun below, 
4 p. a wk. 


The same lan- 
guage, 4 p. awk. 
Second lan- 
guage, 4 p. a wk. 


The same lan- 
guage, 4 p. awk. 
Second lan- 
guage, 4 p. a wk. 














guage, 4 p. a wk. 
Second ] a n- 
guage, 4 p. a wk. 




Arithmetic during first eight years, with alge- 
braic expressions and symbols and simple 
equations— no specific number of hours be- 
ing recommended. 


Concrete 
Geometry, 
1 p. a wk. 


Concrete 
Geometry, 
1 p. a wk. 


Concrete Geom- 
etry, Ip. a wk. 


Concrete Geom- 
etry, 1 p. a wk. 


Algebra, 5 p. a 
wk. 


Algebra or Book- 
keeping and 
Commercial 
Arithmetic, 23/2 
p. a wk. Geom- 
etry, 23^ p. a wk. 


Algebra or Book- 
keeping and 
Commercial 
Arithmetic, 2% 
p. a wk. Geom- 
etry, 23^ p. awk. 


Trigonometry and 
higher Algebra 
for candidates 
for scientific 
schools. 




Study of natural phenomena, 5 p. a wk. through first eight years by experiments, including physical measure- 
ments and the recommendations of Conferences 7 and 9. [Committee of Ten.] 


Elective Astronomy, 5 p. a wk. 12 
wks. 


Chemistry, 5 p. a 
wk. 


Physics, 5 p. a wk. 


7. Natural History 


Through first eight years, 2 p. a wk., of not less than thirty minutes each, devoted to plants and animals ; the 
instruction to be correlated with language, drawing, literature, and geography. 


One yr. (which yr. not specified) 5 p. a wk. for botany and zoology. Half-yr. 
(late in course), anatomy, physiology, and hygiene, 5 p. a wk. 




8. History 










Biography and Mythology, 
3 p. a wk. 


American His- 
tory and Ele- 
ments of Civil 
Government, 3 
p. a wk. 


Greek and Ro- 
man History, 
3 p. a wk. 


French History, 
3 p. a wk. 


English History, 3 
p. a wk. 


American History, 
3 p. a wk. 


A special period 
intensively, and 
Civil Govern- 
ment, 3 p. a wk. 












9. Geography 


Time allotted in first eight years to equal that given to number work. The 
subject— the earth, its environment and inhabitants, including the 
elements of astronomy, meteorology, zoology, botany, history, commerce, 
races, religions, and governments. 

1 


Physical Geog- 
raphy. 


(Physiography, geology, or meteorology at some part 
of the high school course ; possibly more than one of 
these where election is allowed.) 


Elective Meteorol- 
ogy, ]/2 this year 
or next. 


Elective Geology 
or Physiography, 
Yi year. 



Abbrematiom .• p. = a recitation period of 40-45 minutes ; wk = week ; yr. = year. 



PRINCIPLES OF KNOWLEDGE 59 

CHAPTER IV. 

PRINCIPLES OF KNOWLEDGE. 

The laws according to which knowledge develops in the 
mind, are termed Principles of Knowledge. These principles 
are ascertained by inquiry into the constitution of knowledge. 

Ideas and Names. (I.) The reader may not know the 
names of some parts of the pair of scissors on the table before 
him, and yet be quite familiar with the qualities and uses of 
those parts. The difficulty of finding words to express certain 
ideas is a common experience. In the natural course of things 
names are quite unnecessary in forming ideas, and are subse- 
quently added to ideas to record and communicate them. The 
possibility of writing, speaking, and spelling words before 
their meanings are known, is only an apparent exception to 
the law exhibited in the foregoing description ; in such cases 
of spelling, etc., words are simply so many sounds, marks, 
etc., and not really names or signs or symbols of ideas. Thus 
we infer that Ideas precede names and signs. In accordance 
with this principle new words should generally be introduced 
in connection with the objects, qualities, actions, and ideas of 
which they are the names. The rule should be: The idea 
first, and then the name. The violation of this simple law has 
many penalties. 

Ideas and Truths. (II.) The reader had arrived at the 
ideas of which Rose and plant are the names before he formed 
the judgment, or thought, that a rose is a plant. This judgment, 
indeed, presupposes the formation of the ideas of which it is 
composed, and was impossible prior to the formation of such 
ideas. All thoughts are formed in the same way. Now, 
thoughts that are true are termed Truths. Thus it is found 



60 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

to be a law that The formation of ideas precedes the process of 
arriving at truths. According to this principle those ideas 
which must be presupposed in the formation of any judgment, 
or thought, should be develojied before the attempt is made to 
form the judgment in question. In other words, the rule 
should be : Ideas first, and then truths. The violation of this 
almost self-evident principle has brought innumerable woes to 
pupils of arithmetic, grammar, geometry, etc. 

Concrete and Abstract Ideas. (III.) Our first idea of 
such qualities as redness, hardness, gratitude, etc., came to us 
in connection with beings that were red, hard, grateful, etc. 
Such ideas are termed Concrete Ideas. In time it became 
possible for us to think of redness, hardness, gratitude, etc., 
without necessary reference to objects, persons, etc. Ideas 
which the mind can think, and upon which, for the time being, 
it can dwell without necessary reference to objects of sense, 
etc., are termed Abstract Ideas. The process of arriving at 
abstract ideas is always the same. The law, therefore, is that 
Concrete ideas precede abstract ideas. According to this prin- 
ciple abstract ideas presuppose corresponding concrete ideas 
as stepping stones. It is possible, of course, to have approx- 
imately correct ideas of qualities that were never experienced 
in the concrete, provided that these ideas are products of syn- 
thesis, analysis, etc., of other experiences. In all such cases, 
however, the ideas at which the mind arrives are likely to be 
vague and even false. The rule should be : From the concrete 
to the abstract. This rule means that it is the instructor's 
first duty to develop concrete ideas in the minds of his pupils. 
The second duty is to transform concrete into abstract ideas. 
In this process the jiupil slionld not he hurrietl beyond his 
capability, nor should he be allowed to remain too long in the 
concrete. In the first case the result is always confusion ; in 
the second, the result is intellectual shortage. Since general- 
ization, the ultimate stage in the formation of ideas, presup- 



PRINCIPLES OF KNOWLEDGE 61 

poses abstraction, the principle just stated, and its require- 
ments, are among the most important things in the problem 
of education. 

Particular and General Ideas. (IV.) The whole number 
of individuals which have the same nature constitute a genus, 
as birds, horses, etc. Our first knowledge of oranges, friends, 
etc., was a knowledge of individuals and not of the genus. In 
time, because we knew more oranges, etc., and found that all 
individuals resembled each other in certain respects (this im- 
plies memory), we began to think of these individuals as a 
genus. In other words, we concluded to classify all the indi- 
viduals of the same nature, however many there might be, in 
one class, though we might never, as is generally the case, per- 
sonally know all the individuals. This cumulative formation 
of ideas, first of individuals, and then of the genus, illustrates 
a mental law which may be stated as follows : General idexis 
develop from particular ideas. According to this principle the 
development of general ideas requires the observation of indi- 
viduals of the genus in question, as birds, apj)lcs, etc. This 
requirement is fundamental in the development of knowledge. 
The process of observation must, however, be sup])lemented by 
induction, the means in generalization. The neglect of this 
second requirement causes want of system and organic unity 
of ideas, a thing very much to be deplored. 

Facts and Principles. (V.) The reader knew what was 
true about some people before he could arrive at any conclu- 
sion about all people. In time, because he knew more people 
and found the same thing true of each person (this implies 
memory), the reader concluded that the same thing, as mortal- 
ity, will be true in all cases. The reader's experience illus- 
trates a mental law which may be stated as follows : General 
truths {principles) develop from particular truths {fads). This 
conclusion of experience is confirmed by the relation of judgment 
and reasoning, the functions employed in arriving at facts and 



62 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

principles respectively. According to this principle of knowl- 
edge, the necessary stages in the development of a general 
truth, as Mattel' has weight, are observation and induction. In 
other words, the ideas at which we arrive by way of the senses 
or consciousness must be united by direct comparison into posi- 
tive or negative judgments, as Iron, air, etc., have weight, and 
then the thought that Iron, air, etc., have weight, must be 
taken as true of all matter, which amounts to the conclusion 
that All matter has weight. Put in the form of a syllogism 
the argument in question may be stated as follows : Iron, air, 
etc., have weight ; Iron, air, etc., are representative forms of 
matter; Therefore all matter has weight. Observation and 
induction are complementary processes in the development of 
general truths ; without the former, the process of generaliza- 
tion is impossible for want of materials, and without the latter 
our thoughts could not be organized into a system. Since sys- 
tem is the end in view in the development of knowledge, obe- 
dience to the principle in question is of fundamental impor- 
tance to teaching. For a complete explanation of this subject 
Methods-students must refer to losric. 

Causes, Laws, and Classes. (VI.) The reader will re- 
member that among the earliest interests of his life was the 
interest in causes, or powers. The questions which children 
ask along this line are legion. Laws, or, the invariable be- 
havior of causes, is probably the most common subsequent in- 
terest. In other words, adults as well as children do not only 
desire to know why a thing exists in the form in which it does 
exist but also whether it will always be so. Thus, for exam- 
ple, they wish to know why the Autumn leaves fall, and then 
whether they will fall every Autumn. The desire to group 
individuals on the ground of essential resemblances and differ- 
ences generally follows interest in causes and laws. It is true 
that the habit of grouping objects and events on the ground 
of sensible and practical resemblances and differences may be 



PRINCIPLES OF KNOWLEDGE 63 

developed very early in life, but such convenient classification 
ignores the essential resemblances of cause and law. That 
the natural order of inquiry into causes, laws, and scientific 
classes, is the one just presented, is plainly confirmed by the 
fact that " the ancients early made inquiries after the causes in 
natural philosophy and astronomy, while the attempt to ascer- 
tain the laws is of much more recent date," and by the fact 
that " the scientific classifications of Natural History are much 
more recent than those of Natural Philosophy, Astronomy, 
etc." Thus we find that Causes, laws, and classes, form a 
natural series for the mind. The relation of causes, laws, and 
classes, makes the order just presented a logical order. In 
other words, a knowledge of law (invariable behavior of a 
cause) presupposes the study of causes under many and vari- 
ous conditions, and this study requires time. Moreover, scien- 
tific classes consist of individuals whose causes and laws as 
well as other properties are the same in nature, so that a 
knowledge of causes and laws is presupposed. For the com- 
plete method of proving causes, laws, and scientific classes, see 
logic. 

According to the principle just stated, the study of causes 
should generally precede that of laws, and the study of scien- 
tific classes should come last. There are cases, however, where 
the law will present itself to the mind before the cause, and 
the class before the laws and causes. This is especially true 
of cause, law, and class, of "positive" and "mechanical" 
cases. It is generally best to develop causes and laws to- 
gether, classes being taken up somewhat later. This has be- 
come the rule, for example, in taking up history and physics 
before biology. 

Order of Facts of Sciences. (VII.) All sciences (Psy- 
chology of the Sciences) are syllogistic processes. The prem- 
ises, however, do not have the same sources. (1) In the 
natural sciences and mathematics, observation is perceptive, 



64 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

whereas it is introspective in the mental sciences, i.e., in those 
based upon consciousness. (2) The abstractions of the natu- 
ral sciences and mathematicSj i.e., the ideas of space, number, 
time, equality, etc., are comparatively near the concrete, and 
therefore readily realized ; but the abstractions of the mental 
sciences, especially of ethics and aesthetics, are idealities, i.e., 
they cannot be completely realized. (3) Moreover, the ele- 
mentary thoughts (premises) of the mental sciences, whose 
logical subject is some experience of sense or .consciousness, 
and whose logical predicate is some abstract concept, are less 
inevitable in the mental sciences than in the natural sciences 
and mathematics. Thus we conclude that The facts of the 
natural sciences and mathematics ])recede those of the mental 
sciences. According to this principle the course of elementary 
schools should begin with object lessons and numbers together 
with so much language, art, history, etc., as can be mastered 
by the child. 

Order of Principles of Sciences. (VIII.) The great 
truths of mathematics were known to the ancients. The nat- 
ural sciences have only lately begun to mature. Some of the 
mental sciences are even now only in tlieir infancy. This 
order stands out as the law of the sciences, which may be 
stated as follows : The principles of mathematics precede those 
of the natural and the mental sciences. The relation of the 
sciences (see chapter on The Nature of Knowledge) makes the 
order just stated a logical necessity : (1) The natural sciences 
cannot be completely developed without mathematics ; and (2) 
The higher mental sciences presuppose a thorough knowledge 
of mathematics and natural sciences. This conclusion is also 
supported by the fact that the second premise (see Psychology 
of the Sciences) of the mathematical syllogism contains noth- 
ing gratuitous, whereas that of the natural and the mental 
sciences does. This gratuitous factor is most difficult to deal 
with in the mental sciences. According to this principle of 



PRINCIPLES OF KNOWLEDGE 65 

knowledge mathematics should be made fundamental in higher 
education. Logic should follow, for, although it is a mental 
science, it is the indispensable preparation for systematic think- 
ing in the natural sciences. A course in physics, chemistry, 
biology, etc., should precede systematic inquiry into the higher 
mental sciences. 

Philosophy. (IX.) Master minds of all ages have tried 
to arrive at the ultimate principles of the physical and moral 
universe. In these attempts it was often necessary to criticise 
the methods and conclusions of the sciences. Critical inquiry 
into the possibility, certainty, and limits of knowledge, was 
the task of the sceptical Kant. Modern philosophy inquires 
into the postulates of the various sciences as well as into the 
principles at which these sciences arrive. The truths at which 
the particular sciences have admittedly arrived are then syn- 
thetically summed up into ultimate principles, the purpose 
being to construct a system in which the phenomena of matter 
and mind are found to be the creative and regulative manifes- 
tations of the One never self-contradicting and First Cause — 
God. This complex syllogistic method is termed Philosophy. 
It is accordingly an abstract, speculative task, and one which 
presupposes cyclopedic knowledge together with great logical 
ability. Thus we conclude that Philosophy presupposes the 
sciences. According to this principle of knowledge, philoso- 
phy should come last in a course of studies. In most cases a 
thorough college course should constitute the preparatory train- 
ing. 

Correlation of Sciences. (X.) The study of any branch 
of knowledge both presupposes and leads up to other branches, 
so that it seems absolutely impossible to isolate any species of 
knowledge from any other. (See " Correlation.") This genetic 
contact of the various species of knowledge is ably discussed 
by Dr. Arnold Tompkins, in his " Philosophy of Teaching," 
and by " The Committee of Fifteen." The great truth here 

6 



66 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

in question is recognized in the " group" system of studies as 
offered by colleges in our days. The " eclectic" courses offered 
by several noted institutions are also based upon the partial 
recognition of the principle, which may be stated as follows : 
The various species of knowledge are correlate. 

According to this principle the daily " programme" of all 
grades of schools should bring the pupil in contact with nat- 
ural sciences, mathematics, and mental sciences. The prin- 
ciple of " correlation" (see Principles of Culture) must, of 
course, determine largely what the branches shall be. This 
principle reaches its limits in the university, where, after a 
general course, the student may wish to make some field of 
knowledge a specialty (concentration), but even this special 
course cannot be pursued to the best advantage unless the 
student has passed through a correlated general course. The 
principle also finds its limits in technical and professional 
schools, where it must often be abandoned for practical and 
economical reasons. 



PEINCIPLES OF INSTRUCTION 67 

CHAPTER Y. 

PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUCTION. 

Things done for the pupil's increase of knowledge, are 
termed Instruction, from the Latin words in, into, and struo, 
I build. The instructor, accordingly, is a builder of ideas 
and thoughts, and his world is the pupil's intellect. And yet 
he is a builder only in so far as he causes the pupil himself to 
build. (See principle I., Nature of Education.) When, in 
supervising the activity of learners, the teacher becomes the 
best stimulus and guide, he is the ideal instructor. (See prin- 
ciple II., Nature of Education.) Although instruction, since 
its ends are purely intellectual, is not coextensive with culture, 
whose ends are emotional and volitional as well as intellectual, 
culture should nevertheless always be one result of instruction. 
In this work of instruction, as well as in that of culture, the 
teacher must conform with certain laws, to which, as we learn 
from the nature of culture and knowledge, the development of 
ideas and thoughts is subject. The general truths in question 
are termed Principles of Instruction. 

Adaptation of Lessons. (I.) The pupil who must over- 
work himself again and again in learning lessons, as happens 
when promotions are premature, is in danger of stunting the 
functions used in his eiforts and may become a total dwarf. 
The pupil who tries hard, but fails again and again to master 
lessons assigned to him, is in danger of losing faith in his 
powers, or comes to believe that his teacher lacks sense in 
assigning lessons. Other bad results may follow. Thus we 
conclude that the learner should not be tried beyond his present 
powers. 

On the other hand, the pupil who is not required to put 



68 PKINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

forth vigorous efforts in learning the lessons assigned to him, 
will soon come to consider himself smart, and waste his leisure 
time in mischief, or else leave the school in disgust. It fol- 
lows that the learner should exert himself up to his capacity 
and in harmony with the stage of his development. (See chap- 
ter on Laws of Mental Activity.) After ascertaining as nearly 
as possible what the pupil can learn, the instructor should 
assign such lessons and make such promotions as are exactly 
suited to the present powers of the learner. In short. The 
matter of instruction ought to be adjusted to the present powers 
of the learner. 

In order to find out just what is to be expected of the 
learner, inquiry must be made into his age, talents, habits, 
peculiarities, previous advantages, etc., and then he must be 
tried on tentative lessons. If the pupil is responsive and suc- 
cessful when thus tried, the instructor need not hesitate to 
proceed. 

Succession of Lessons. (II.) Perception presupposes sen- 
sation and consciousness, abstraction presupposes perception, 
generalization (conception) presupposes abstraction, judgment 
presupposes ideation, syllogism presupposes judgment, etc. In 
short, we see that the progressive route of thought begins with 
sensation and ends in syllogism. (See the Laws of Mental 
Activity.) But the mind also tends to traverse a regressive 
route, the direct opposite of the progressive steps. This regres- 
sive activity is necessary to assure the mind of the grounds 
upon which its advances were based and in order to give 
greater and better content to each progressive step. 

It must, therefore, be inferred that concrete lessons should 
precede abstract lessons, and that abstract lessons should be 
reinforced when necessary by reverse reference to the concrete ; 
that wholes should be decomposed, and parts composed into 
wholes; that particular truths should be fused into general 
truths, and that general truths should be realized in particular, 



PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUCTION 69 

practical truths ; that judgments should be gathered into syl- 
logisms, and conclusions traced back to their premises. (See 
the Principles of Knowledge.) 

The species of knowledge which thus correspond to the 
necessary precedences in the functional activity of the mind, 
and which precede and follow one another by reason of func- 
tional precedences, are said to be in logical relation with each 
other. The logical trend just noticed indicates the steps to be 
required of learners. In short, The learner is to be conducted 
from that which he knows to that which is in logical relation 
with it. 

According to this principle it is not proper in arithmetic to 
study percentage before fractions, or fractions before the " fun- 
damental operations." In geometry the progress from prob- 
lem to problem must be a somewhat perfect junction of syl- 
logisms, each one paving the way for the next one and 
necessitating it. In any study some steps will not be possi- 
ble for the learner until he has taken all the steps that lead 
up to the one in question. So, too, geography paves the way 
for history, and arithmetic for algebra ; but geography does 
not pave the way for algebra, nor arithmetic for history. In 
short, the various branches of study, as well as the various 
steps of a branch, should precede and follow each other in the 
order in which they pave the way for each other in the under- 
standing of the learner. Some studies, indeed, will not be 
possible for the learner until he has learned those studies 
which lead up to the ones in question. (See the Principles 
of Knowledge, especially the Tenth Principle.) Text-books, 
courses of study, and daily instruction, should therefore be 
planned so that each step is the most natural to take. The 
teacher should ascertain critically just what the pupil knows, 
and then lead up to that knowledge to which the knowledge 
already acquired is the interpreting key. 

Interesting Instruction. (III.) The will (see tenth law 



70 PRINCII'LKH AND MCTIIODH OK TIOACIIING 

of mental m;tivity) \h Hiil)jc(;i io Uk; law ol" siiriiiiiaiioii of 
Hiimiili, aii<l, an may be <)l)S(!rv<'<l in all tliv. alliiirs of li(r, iii- 
t(!r(!st i,s IIk; mont j)()vv(!rf"iil Htlmiiliis hoili to mental and 
])liyHi(!al activity. An inteniHtinj; task i.s light; interesting- 
linoH of tliouglit ai(! almost irresistible. That lesson is most 
likely to Ik; stii<lie<l wliieh m most int<!resting to tlu; j»n|)il. 
Jn(!(!(!(l, it will not only lu; eoinmitted to memory, bnt also de- 
v<!lo|)e<l in th(! ini(l(!i'stan<ling and absorbed into the (iharacter. 

If is almost impossible to study a lesson that is not interest- 
ing; in th(! abs<;n<!e of intensst the will of tlu; learner is weak 
and (!V(!n rebellious, and thiii, too, at times, in sj)il(! of duty or 
entreaty. The |)U))il may Ix; compelled to rejxjat the; words 
until h(! eau re(!it(! th(! lesson, but that is UK-ehanic^al associa- 
tion, and the result, exe-<!|>t where such association is th(! ess(^n- 
tial thing, as in spelling or committing extracts, is of little 
valu(!, if not an actual injiuy to tin; mind. 

Thus W(! see ilw. importances of (iulisting the pupil's interest 
in his hwsons. TIk; lessons nuist thertifbre b(! ada|)ted as 
exactly as possible to the leariuir's present powers and U) 
th<! logical iKuids of his jjnssciut understanding (I^^'irst and 
Second l'riu(;iplcsof Instruction) ; for- a|»art from such adMj)ta- 
tions I hey ai<! not interesting as a rule. VVIh'U all this has 
be(!n done, it may still \)o. nectcMsary lo lead the learner to dis- 
<;(!rn souk; distini^t, some ultimate^ woi'th in lhos(! lessons which, 
in spile; of adaptations to his needs, do not h:ive any intrinsic 
worth foi" his pr(!S(!nt judgment and mood. All Ihesc adjust- 
nKiuts and pr(;|)arations should be made in i\nt assignment of 
lessons. In short, The pomlhi/Uy of iTiieresting the learner is to 
he. coimdcrcd in (lehrmirmif/ what Indnirtum to f/ive. 

Needs of the Whole Pupil. (IV.) Three; recpiirements 
as to the; matt<;r of instriuition have; been noticred : (1) The mat- 
ter of instrufition ought to be adjusted to the; present jjowcts 
of tiie pu|)il. (2) Th(! learner is to \h\ con<lueted from his 
present knowledges to that which is in le)gical ri;lation with it. 



PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUCTION 71 

(3) The poHBibility of iiitcrcHting tho pupil Ih t/> be <u>m\(hr(.(l 
ill (h:icrni\mn^ vvliui iiistriiciiori to f^ivo. Jiiit, IIk; fiiiiciiotial 
dcvclopjficnt of the pupil, as well as the logical junction of the 
leHsonH U) bo loarn(;d and the intcjrcHt taken in thoHe leHHonn, 
will have ulterior oonH(;fjuenc<,'H of" the most trenu.'ndouH sif^nifi- 
cance in religifjUH, moral, practical, aisthctic, and j)hyHical inat- 
terH. In otiier words, the superior and ultimate j)roHj)erity of 
the whole pupil is affected by the wjurse of wtudies upon which 
he occiij)ies liis mind. This is the fundamental ])resumption 
of education, 'i'hus we see the impoitanc<; of taking into ac- 
count all the needs of the puj)il in choosinj^ a course of IcnmnH 
for him. The projK;r f|U<;stions for the insti'uctor are there- 
fore as follows : (1 ) With what objects are the senses of the 
pupil to be occupi<id ? (2) With wliat contents is the memory 
to Ixi filled? (.'i) Upon what matfirials shoidd imaj^ination 
operat^i? (4) From what mass of experientj^is should the 
mind cull its a)nc<ipts? (5) Within what domain, practical, 
moral, religious, et^j., should the understanding try to «>gni/e 
relations? In short, The naedn of the v)ho/e pupU are t/j be 
CfMnidered in detfTrrunhi// v)h/d inHtrwiion U> (jive. 

Right Method of Instruction. (V.) It is one thing to 
settle whai instruction ought to be given, and quite another 
thing U) settle what the rael/iod of instruf^tion ought to be. 
But if it is true that the learner ought to be conducted from 
his present knf)wledge to that whidi is in logical relation with 
it (8ew>nd rrincijile of instruction), then it is evident enough 
that the logical junction, whatever it may be, which exists 
between that which is known and that which is to be k;arned, 
must be the transition tf) be rr^^juired of thf; learner. 

""J'he logical trend (sw; the Hoj^md IVincijile of Instruction) 
is from the whole to its parts, as in a sfmken word and it« 
sounds, or a sentenw and its elements ; from the parts Uj the 
whole, as in w;nt^;nc<; construction or additir^n ; from the (um- 
crete to the abstract, as in geography or arithmetic ; from the 



72 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

abstract to the concrete, as in reading or algebra ; from the 
simple to the complex, as in generalization and classification ; 
from the particular to the general, as in learning causes, laws, 
conditions, etc., through observation and hypothesis ; from the 
general to the particular, as in working problems according to 
rule, or in obedience to laws ; from practice to theory, as in 
explaining processes, or justifying courses of action ; from the- 
ory to practice, as in the application of philosophy or science 
to the tasks of life. Accordingly we conclude that analysis 
and synthesis, induction and deduction, are the essential forms 
of instruction. It is deemed of the utmost importance to 
require the pupils to take these steps as the necessity of the 
case may dictate, and always with due inquiry into the ability 
and interest of the learner. (See First and Third Principles 
of Instruction.) The mind developed in accordance with this 
law will attain not only to extensive knowledge, but to the 
highest wisdom. Accordingly, The logical relatioji of that 
which is known to that which is to be learned determines the true 
method of instruction. 

Right Mental Activity in Instruction. (VI.) That which 
is required of pupils in preparing a lesson and reciting it, does, 
not generally necessitate the employment of those functions 
which ought to be employed. (1) Many teachers do not make 
it necessary for their pupils to use their imagination and under- 
standing in studying and reciting a reading lesson. (2) Too 
much oral spelling is allowed, seeing that the eye and hand are 
the better media of memory in spelling. Such a thing as in- 
ductive thinking in learning to spell is almost unknown, and 
yet that is essential to highest attainments in spelling. (3) 
Writing is taught without strong appeal to the pupil's sense 
of the appropriate and the beautiful. The will is seldom re- 
quired to put forth its best efforts in penmanship, and yet that 
is in nine cases out of ten the surest road to success with the 
pen. (4) A parrot-like repetition of the text is often all that 



PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUCTION 73 

is required of pupils in geography, whereas observation, imag- 
ination, and reasoning are of the highest importance. (5) The 
same folly is common in teachers of history and composition. 
(6) Pupils are allowed to commit grammar, geometry, etc., 
whereas observation, judgment, and all the modes of reasoning 
are essential. 

The results, intellectual, moral, and practical, are deplorable. 
The teacher that knows no better, or, knowing better, fails to 
do better, is evidently out of place in the school-room. In 
order to improve the functions of the pupil as a whole, and 
to instruct him in the highest sense, the teacher must require 
of him that study and those tests which necessitate the most 
appropriate and the most essential mental activity. In other 
words. The method of instruction should necessitate in learners 
the employment of those mental functions which ought to be 
employed in learning that which is to be learned. 

Culture of Instruction. (VII.) "In learning anything 
there are two points to be considered ; 1st, the advantage we 
shall find from knowing that subject or having that skill, and 
2d, the effect which the study of that subject or practising for 
that skill will have on the mind or body." The latter consid- 
eration is regarded of primary importance in education. But 
it does not follow that a course of instruction, even if it em- 
ploys the functions which ought to be employed, improves 
those functions to the utmost limit. And this failure is due 
to improper employment of the functions in question. When, 
for example, the senses are not required to be used with in- 
terest and attention, or the memory is only mechanical associa- 
tion, or judgment goes unchallenged, or reasoning is deductive 
when it should be inductive and vice versa, the results will of 
course be disappointing. In such cases the pupil will not 
gain strength, nor better his habits and interests, and his 
grandest possibilities may be destroyed or go unused. It is 
only when functions are employed in accordance with the laws 



74 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

of psychic activity (see the chapter on Methods of Culture) 
that they improve as they can and should improve. Accord- 
ingly, Tlie methods of instruction should necessitate such employ- 
ment of functions as duly improves them. 

Emancipation in Instruction. (VIII.) A time should 
come when a learner may be safely put in charge of himself, 
a time when he ought to take his own destiny into his own 
hand, a time when he may become at least one of his teachers, 
and that a most effective one. (See the Third General Prin- 
ciple of Education.) In order that this point in the develop- 
ment of the pupil may be reached, he must be required to 
study as he should study until it becomes hLs established habit 
to study in that way, and until his interests as well as his 
power, are such as to warrant his emancipation from an in- 
structor's authoritative tutelage. In other words, Tlie method 
of instruction should tend to free the learner from the necessity 
of supervision. But what are the habits and methods and 
moods of study that should be cultivated in the pupil in order 
that he may attain freedom from an instructor's authority and 
supervision? These habits, etc., have been indicated in the 
chapters on Methods of Culture and Principles of Instruc- 
tion. To these chapters the reader is expected to refer. Fore- 
most among other things it should be required of learners to 
be observant, earnest, accurate, industrious, reflective, and 
systematic. 

Specific Methods of Instruction. (IX.) The public 
schools dare not forget that in general at least their mission 
is practical as well as cultural, but it is not to be required 
of them, nor to any great extent, of tlie colleges, to train 
directly for special professions, arts, or destinies. The latter 
training is the professed and essential mission of technical 
schools. 

In technical schools it is a duty to do whatever can be done 
to fit the pupil for specific vocations. Accordingly, the course 



PEINCIPLES OF INSTRUCTION 75 

of study and the methods of instruction, as well as those of 
culture, are to be adapted to the ends in view. The methods 
of instruction in particular ought to necessitate in learners the 
formation of those habits and moods which will be of most 
service in specific vocations. In some vocations the great need 
is skill in analyzing ; in others it is skill in synthesis, or in- 
duction, or deduction, or a number of these, perhaps all of 
them. In many occupations the work is concrete ; in others 
it is more abstract. In some arts earnestness or industry is 
most necessary ; in others, system or accuracy. Thus, Specific 
methods of instruction are to be employed in fitting pupils for 
specific vocations. 

Ideal Instruction. (X.) Ideation, as psychology teaches, 
begins in perception, if things, as plants, birds, etc., are the 
objects of thought, and in consciousness, if " self" is the object 
in question. In abstraction external and internal qualities, as 
solidity, conscientiousness, etc., become the objects of thought. 
Abstraction, accordingly, is the second stage of ideation. The 
third and final stage of ideation is the cumulative process, 
commonly termed generalization, by which the mind builds 
object-concepts, as vertebrates, emotions, etc., and quality- 
concepts, as transparency, intensity, etc. If the mass of ex- 
periences out of which object-concepts and quality- concepts 
are formed is acquired through perception together with mem- 
ory, generalization is termed external apperception, but if the 
origin of the experiences in question is consciousness, general- 
ization may be termed internal apperception. In this com- 
plete process of ideation, memory preserves and imagination 
enlarges experience. Direct comparison, or judgment, is essen- 
tial to abstraction, or analytic attention, while indirect com- 
parison, or reasoning, although apparently absent in many 
cases, is always essential to generalization, or synthetic atten- 
tion. 

By direct relation, or judgment, ideas become the subjects 



76 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

and predicates of logical judgments, and judgments containing 
" middle" terms become premises of syllogism, or indirect re- 
lation, the inductive syllogism ending in opinion or truth that 
must in turn become the point of departure for many practical 
deductions, as rules and methods. No science or philosophy 
has ever been developed in any other way, nor given birth to 
any art by any other process. 

The series to which attention has been called, exhausts, as 
psychology shows, the possibilities of the human intellect. To 
complete the series should therefore be the end in view in in- 
struction. This requirement harmonizes with tlie principles 
of correlation, concentration, and knowledge, and it cannot be 
inconsistent with the demands of life, unless life and mind be 
contradictions. In this treatise the term observation will be 
used to designate ideation in connection with direct relation of 
ideas. Induction and deduction, according to the fifth prin- 
ciple of knowledge, are the successive phases of indirect rela- 
tion of ideas. Accordingly, The successive requirements of 
ideal instruction are observation, induction, and deduction. This 
method of instruction is sometimes called "psychological," 
because it satisfies mental requirements, and " scientific," be- 
cause the end in view is complete knowledge. 



PART III. 
METHODS OF TEACHING. 



77 



METHODS OF MENTAL CULTURE 79 

CHAPTER I. 

METHODS OF MENTAL CULTURE. 

In our inquiry into the nature of education and the princi- 
ples of culture, it was found that self- activity was the 
basis of education, but that stimulus and reinforcements 
were necessary supplements of self-activity. Ideal methods 
of culture must satisfy these requirements. It is proposed, 
therefore, to point out in this chapter the required means in 
the cultivation of the intellect, sensibility, and will, and to 
show how these means may be made most effective. 

Perception. The appropriate means in cultivating percep- 
tive power and right perceptive habits are as follows : 

1. There must he general and habitual observation. Mental 
activity begins in the senses. The little ones are all ear and 
eye and hand. This fervent inquisitiveness of childhood, alas, 
too often ceases when childhood ceases. There is too much 
caprice in our use of the senses. Most people see and hear 
only what they cannot avoid. Education should lead us to 
look all around, over head and under foot, into crevices, — 
everywhere except where looking would be sin or evil. This 
is what is meant when it is said that observation should be 
general. Then, too, observing should become a habit with us, 
i.e., we ought to make observing a business rather than a mat- 
ter of fits and starts. It is in this business- way that the mind 
must get its necessary stock of concrete ideas. 

2. There must he frequent and rvell-planned observation les- 
sons. There are daily opportunities for these lessons, though 
they may be given less often, according to circumstances. 
They should be lessons on Form, Color, Parts, Qualities, and 
on the Elements of Mineralogy, Botany, Zoology, and Physi- 



80 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

ology. Some lessons on Chemistry and Natural Philosophy 
are very much in place. These lessons should always be 
suited to the stages of the child's development. Moreover, 
they should by all means be interesting, instructive, and ben- 
eficial lessons. 

3. The objects studied should he described and sketched if pos- 
sible. If at first children happen to be timid, they should be 
assisted in describing and sketching. In a short time pupils 
will take courage and enjoy these exercises. It is only when 
children are required to describe and sketch objects that exact 
and industrious observation will become a solid habit. 

Memory. In order to develop memory in pupils, the 
teacher should observe the following suggestions : 

1. Develop real interest in that which is to be committed. 
The mental excitement denoted by the term interest is at the 
same time a nervous excitement, and for that reason results in 
definite neurosis. This explains why interesting facts are so 
easily retained and so completely recalled at pleasure. Ac- 
cordingly, if that which is to be committed happens not to be 
interesting in itself, as in the case of the multiplication table 
or spelling, it is the teacher's business to put interest into it, 
as when he points out to pupils the convenience of tlie multi- 
plication table or the necessity of orthography. The teacher 
will be able to make many uninviting lessons interesting, 
sometimes through illustration, sometimes by argument or ex- 
planation, and sometimes by personal enthusiasm or moral 
influence. 

2. Develop true attention. When the work to be done by 
memory is interesting, the mind becomes attentive of its own 
accord. But in many cases pupils must be required to com- 
mit and reproduce facts that are far from being interesting. 
Then, too, even interesting facts do not adhere to memory 
when they come in too great numbers or too rapidly. In such 
cases voluntary effort must be put fortli in committing and 



METHODS OF MENTAL CULTURE gl 

recalling. The strongest effort usually results in the most 
definite neurosis, and thus in the best memory. Accordingly, 
it becomes the teacher's business to cultivate concentration in 
his pupils, not its semblance, but the very thing itself. He 
can do this in various ways, but especially through his own 
example, as well as through tasks in which such concentration 
is essential. 

3. Require frequent repetition. Words and facts "com- 
mitted to memory" do not by this committal become posses- 
sions or contents of which the mind continues to be conscious 
in an unbroken stream from the moment of their commit- 
ment, but the act of committing affects more or less perma- 
nently the nervous apparatus which is in the employ of 
memory. It is through revival of these former neural activi- 
ties that the mind in its present junction with the body must 
arrive at " second editions" of its former contents, i.e., at a 
repetition of its former activities. This psychic repetition is 
either simple " remembrance" or " recollection," the former 
being a revival without voluntary effort, the latter a volun- 
tary one. For the degree of its success this mental repe- 
tition must obviously depend on two conditions : (1) How 
thoroughly was the nervous apparatus affected in committing ? 
and (2) How securely have these imprints on the nervous 
apparatus been retained ? 

Thus it appears that words and facts which are not to be 
forgotten must be repeated again and again with most faithful 
perseverance, first at short intervals of time, and then at longer 
intervals. Indeed, these repetitions, or reviews, ought to be 
so frequent as to result in neural ownership, or habit, i.e., a 
persistent possession in the nervous apparatus through which 
alone, in the present junction of body and mind, memory is 
possible. In that event recollection and recognition will be 
an easy revival in consciousness through the medium of easy 
neurosis. Thus, for students who will put forth vigorous and 

6 



82 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

persevering efforts, it is possible to master vocabularies, de- 
clensions, inflections, idioms, extracts, rules, principles, etc. 
Accordingly, in the cultivation of memory it is of the utmost 
importance to require frequent repetition. 

4. Have pupils commit many extracts of prose and poetry. 
It is impossible to name a function of body or mind that does 
not improve through appropriate exercise. It cannot be 
proved that memory is an exception to this rule. Indeed, 
observation and experience go to show that among the func- 
tions of the mind none is more capable of improvement 
through exercise than memory. Inasmuch, then, as exercise 
is to be given to memory, it is well for obvious reasons to 
select such tasks as may indirectly promote practical, moral, 
and jesthetic understanding, and language, as well as memory. 
This will be hitting two birds with one stone. Accordingly, 
pupils should be required to commit many extracts of prose 
and poetry. These extracts should be adapted to the child's 
stage of development — especially to his understanding — and 
they ought to be such as will serve not only to fix linguistic 
moulds for the child, but also true views of life and destiny . 

5. Help the child find the best cohesions in committing. It is 
of the highest importance to understand that which is to be 
committed. In that case words and facts will cohere more 
effectually in consciousness, and their imprints in the nervous 
apparatus will be more directly connected and hence more 
readily restored. Moreover, through the interest and atten- 
tion that usually attach to what the mind understands, the 
nervous imprints will be more definite and therefore more en- 
during. Therefore, the cohesions in committing should be evi- 
dent, and natural, i.e., not forced ; and logical, i.e., connected 
as cause and effect. In addition to this, the mind should be 
in a responsive mood and the body ready for service to the 
mind. Thus appears the propriety of studying certain lessons, 
with a mind that is free from preoccupation or worry, and at 



METHODS OF MENTAL CULTURE 83 

those times of the day when the nervous system is more vigor- 
ous. In other words, the best cohesions in committing result 
from the completest obedience to the " laws of association." 
(See text-book on Psychology.) 

Imagination. The importance of cultivating imagination 
until it becomes what it ought to be in quantity, propensity, 
and quality, is too often forgotten by teachers. In this work 
it is well for teacher and pupil to heed the following sugges- 
tions : 

1. Observe that ichich is lovely and inspiring everywhei'e in 
Nature. Sensation stimulates imagination ; it is an indis- 
pensable stimulation ; its quantity and quality have much to 
do with the quantity and quality of imagination. Thus arises 
the importance of choosing our sensations, if we would improve 
our imagination. In most people there is enough imagina- 
tion, but so often it is of a poor quality. This ought to be 
remedied. Accordingly, it is imperative to observe the lovely 
and inspiring everywhere in Nature. Those who hope to live 
in a world of their own construction, sublime and beautiful, 
must be much in contact with the sights and forms and sounds 
of the world which God has made. In other words, it ought 
to be a habit of ours to seek the quiet valley and the murmur- 
ing stream, sweet birds and flowers, starlight and the azure 
sky. And again we ought to know majestic mountains, mighty 
rivers, foaming cataracts, the storm, the sea. 

2. Observe that which is lovely and inspiring in Art. The 
works of Art, though far inferior to the works of God, are 
very lovely and inspiring. Architecture, sculpture, painting, 
music, poetry, and fiction, have created for the eye and the ear 
and the hand what these need in order to stimulate imagina- 
tion. Those who would expand their little world beyond its 
narrow real limits may do so in the presence of majestic tem- 
ples, graceful statuary, the paintings of the Masters, tender or 
majestic music, poetry, and fiction. The figures of the poet, 



84 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

the characters and events of fiction, etc., all tend to stimulate 
and refine imagination in those who read and see and hear. 

3. Efnrich the mind with lovely and inspiring memories of 
Nature and Art. The same nervous apparatus is active in 
sensations and their reproduction, i.e., the neural process of 
memory is simply a reproduction — however faint it be — of 
past sensations. It is obvious, therefore, that, if sensations 
stimulate imagination, their reproduction in memory will do 
so too. Indeed, the psychic phase of memory (the " second 
editions" proper) is itself a species of reproductive imagina- 
tion. From this reproductive phase of imagination to its pro- 
ductive phase the transition is spontaneous. Thus arises the 
great importance of stimulating and purifying and ennobling 
imagination through restoring " memories" of those things 
which are lovely and inspiring in Nature and Art. This 
habit of recalling what was seen and heard in field and forest, 
among birds and flowers, as well as in galleries of Art, or in 
books, is not only a delightful habit, but one that tends to de- 
velop imagination into an inner Avorld of beauty and sublimity, 
loveliness and splendor, grace and majesty. 

4. Make associates of imagination and thought. In many 
branches of study it is possible to employ the imagination in 
helpful connection (see the Second Principle of Culture) with 
"thought." This is especially the case with geography, his- 
tory, geometry, physical science, and literature. In all these 
connections thought becomes the reinforcement of imagination. 

Thought. According to the first principle of culture, the 
fundamental thing in the cultivation of " thought," is practice 
in judging and reasoning. In the earlier stages of thought, 
the concrete and particular are the most effective stimulus; in 
the later stages the abstract and general should be gradually 
substituted. In these transitions the teacher must be guided 
by the measure of the pupil's interest and ability. Inductive 
and deductive thought should generally be correlated. The 



METHODS OF MENTAL CULTURE 85 

cultivation of thought need not be deferred, as Rousseau 
seemed to think, to the grammar school period, but should 
begin, as psychology teaches, in the lower grades. The com- 
mon school branches are the teacher's convenient means not 
only in lower, but also in higher grades. History, geography, 
grammar, and arithmetic, are best suited to the grammar school 
age. Physical geography, geometry, and algebra, together with 
botany and natural philosophy, are suitable for high school 
pupils. General history, psychology, and the classics, are use- 
ful means in Normal schools and colleges. 

Sensibility, The following suggestions will be found good 
rules in the cultivation of the feelings. These rules, inferred 
from psychology, are based upon the relation of the feelings 
to intellect and will. 

1 . Smround the pupil with ennobling influences. The heart 
is a harp of a thousand strings ; it vibrates with the slightest 
touch ; it moves in response to all that comes to it through 
intellect and sense. Thus it becomes possible to cultivate the 
feelings by means of books, pictures, companions. Nature, 
Art, etc. The teacher should never grow weary in trying to 
surround his pupils with such influences, physical and spirit- 
ual, as will tend to ennoble the emotions, affections, desires, 
hopes, etc., of his pupils. 

2. Resort to moral, sesthetic, and spiritual precepts. Improper 
thoughts generate improper feelings, and proper thoughts, to 
say the least, tend toward the opposite result, i.e., proper feel- 
ings. Thus it follows that the "heart" is to be cultivated 
through the "head." Accordingly, it is possible to improve 
the feelings through those precepts which improve Conscience 
(moral precepts), through those which improve Taste (sesthetic 
precepts), and through those which lift the thoughts toward 
God, or the things of God (spiritual precepts). These lessons 
may be formal, as in set talks, or informal, as in the study of 
biography, art, and Holy Writ. 



86 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

3. 8d the pupil worthy examples. Direct contact with a^ 
noble-hearted teacher is worth more to the feelings of pupils 
than all precepts put together. Pupils, so to say, absorb the 
feelings of the teacher, and drift into his current. It must 
therefore be important that the teacher cultivate propriety and 
vigor of feeling in himself, not only for his own sake, but also 
for absorption by his pupils. The study of appropriate biog- 
raphy will have a similar effect. " Boys Who Became Great 
Men," is a most excellent book for this purpose. The teacher 
should also see to it, whenever possible, that none of his pupils 
are spoiled by evil examples in school-mates. 

4. Require the pupil to master his evil impulses. To master 
one's feelings absolutely, is simply impossible; and yet it is 
quite possible to concentrate one's thoughts more or less on 
worthy objects, thus breaking the tyrannous sway of one's im- 
pulses. Pupils should be incited in every possible way to 
think of duty, justice, mercy, truth, etc., and to dislodge all 
feelings that are out of harmony with better sense or sober 
reason. The boy that will make honest efforts to obey these 
higher ideas will in time develop in himself the power to 
subordinate his impulses to reason, and the power to master 
himself in most trying situations. 

Will. Apart from intelligent vigor of will, the mind can- 
not develop adequately nor do its work in the world. (See 
" Nature of Education.") The following suggestions, based 
on the relation of will to intellect and emotion (" Total Inter- 
action," page 28), are good rules in the cultivation of will. 

1. Develop noble conceptions and eonotions. It is the nature 
of the mind not to will except when there are motives, or 
stimuli. These stimuli are of two kinds, namely, intellectual 
and emotional. In other words, noble ideas and the feelings 
arising from these ideas, tend to ennoble the will, but ignoble 
ideas and the feelings arising from these ideas, tend to vitiate 
the will. The most efiective motives, as we know by inquiry 



METHODS OF MENTAL CULTURE 87 

into human " interests," are the ideas of utility, truth, beauty, 
and duty. These ideas should, therefore, be developed into 
intentions, or ideals, in the character of pupils. The " love'' 
through which the ideas in question become ideals, is the strong- 
est stimulus in life. (1) To accomplish these ends, the teacher 
should find or create concrete situations for his pupils, and then 
add such instruction as may serve his purposes. This was the 
method of Pestalozzi and Fenelon. Older pupils should study 
economics, physical and mathematical science, aesthetics, and 
ethics. (2) The motives, career, and destiny of historical per- 
sons, should be studied in the light of mental sciences. Older 
students should also study comedy and tragedy ; for thus they 
will build up for themselves types of character with which 
they may compare themselves, and thus take warning from 
the fate of others. (3) When instruction fails, as in " The 
Evolution of Dodd," penalties must be inflicted ; for these 
will often impress lessons otherwise despised and disobeyed. 
This is a special sphere of school management. 

2. Mequire vigorous activity in all tasks. Attention and in- 
tention, as was pointed out in the chapter on mental activity, 
are the characteristic phases of volition, or decision. Punctual 
and regular attention together constitute industry. Persistent 
attention is known as perseverance. When any one is master 
of himself, as in trying circumstances or amid adverse forces, 
the voluntary self-mastery is termed Self-Control. Purpose 
and resolution are strong intentions. 

It will be noticed that in all these forms of self-determina- 
tion, the invariable element is effort, assertion, vigor. In short, 
vigor is the one thing to be cultivated in the cultivation of the 
will. It should therefore be required of pupils to be attentive, 
industrious, persevering, and self-possessed. The ordinary 
duties of study and exercise, as found in the present curricu- 
lum of schools, afford ample opportunity for the cultivation 
of will in pupils. The teacher should see to it that pupils try 



88 I'KlNCiri.EH AND METHODS OK TEACHING 

to maHtx;r practical difficulties, overcome obstaclcH, and put 
forth iiitelli^(!nt, «)ijrageouH (;ITort in all tjisks. (jlyninasiic 
cxerciHCH are eKj)eeiully valuable in cultivating attention, 
deciHion, courage, perseverana;, and self-control. 

In the getting of an education attention is nearly every- 
thing. The same holds true of success in the various dcipart- 
ments of life. It is therefore of the very greatest importance 
U) cultivate attention in our j)Upils. 

Th(! following suggestions will aid the teacher in cultivating 
attention in j)Uj)ils : 

1. The teacher must show in his face and voice and manners 
that he is himscilf int(!rested in the subject under consideration. 
The effect will he electric. 

2. I'lie teacli(;r must use the best methods of instruction and 
the greatest possible skill in speech. Professional training is 
simj)ly indispensable. 

o. 'J'Ik! Ixacher iruist assign such tasks in recitation and out 
of r(!citation as will require close observation and vigorous 
thinking. 

4. The tc;acher must study every pupil in particular, in 
order to win and hold his attention. 



OBJECT LESSONS 89 

CHAPTER ir. 

OBJECT LE8S0NS. 

A CORRECT conception of object lessons is of tlie greatest 
importance in detcrrnining right methrxis of instruction. (See 
the Principles of Instruction.) Two problems, therefore, de- 
serve our attention in this chaptf^r : (1 j The Nature of C)[>ject 
Leasons; and (2) The Method of Instruction in Objwt 
Lessons. 

.THE NATURE OF OBJECT LESSONS. 

What objef;t lessons really are, is most wnveniently set 
forth under the following heads : (1) The 8ubje<;ts of Study ; 
(2) The Ends in View ; (3) The Method of Study ; and (4) 
The Ilist^jry of Object Ix*ssons. 

The Subjects of Study. " Object Lessons," as indicated 
by the name, are lessons on o6yec/^. But, to avoid mi~<i()n(^]y- 
tions, it must Ix^ added that object less(^jns are cfjnfxjrnwl only 
with Hermfjk objects. Any object of the pupil's environment 
may be studif^. The object may be a prrxluct of Nature or 
manufacture. Objfict less^^rLS in which the things with which 
the physical s^uences are c^mcj'.rnof], are the subjcy.-ts of study, 
have Ijeen most appropriately t(irmed " Nature Studies." 

The Ends in View in Object Lessons. The ends in 
view, as in all studies which deserve a lAacjt in our seh^x^ls, 
are two, namely, (1) Culture and (2) Instruction. 

Oij.Uure in Ohjcxi LanHf/iiH. Obje^rt l^iss^^ns are designr^l to 
exercise the pupil's mind in such a way as tfj utili/*^ and im- 
prove all its functions, but esfXicially the jxirceptive function 
in connection with memory, judgment, and attention. The 
propriety of objw;t lessons as a means of culture will be <yjn- 
bidered under the imyorUiivbt of object lessons. 



90 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

Instruction in Object Lessons. Object lessons are also de- 
signed to equip pupils with such knowledge of their environ- 
ment as will serve the practical, moral, and aesthetic ends of 
life. In order to accomplish this end the /orms, colors, parts, 
qualities, powers, etc., of objects are made special subjects of 
study. The propriety of object lessons as a means of in- 
struction will be considered imder the importance of object 
lessons. 

The Method of Study. In -the study of objects the whole 
pupil can be at work, but all the activities into which he enters 
must begin in the senses. This is the characteristic feature of 
the study of objects. Conceptive and reflective attention must, 
however, be added to perceptive attention as necessary com- 
plements and reinforcements. (See Rosenkranz.) In the 
case of younger pupils, the study of objects may amount 
only to observation, i.e., to inquiry into facts, but older pupils 
will seek after the general truths of phenomena and make 
these truths rules of conduct, i.e., they will study not only 
by observation, but also by induction and deduction. The 
experiments of the physical sciences are object lessons in this 
higher sense. 

The History of Object Lessons. Perhaps there never 
was a time in the history of education when object lessons 
were not regarded as an essential part of primary instruction. 
In practice teachers have differed considerably. Some teach- 
ers introduced such instruction as adjuncts of various studies. 
Although Locke, Comenius, and others, advocated object les- 
sons, the credit of introducing them as a distinct method of 
elementary instruction is usually given to Pestalozzi. In our 
days the systems introduced by educators of former centuries 
have been expanded and perfected. Modern education lays 
great stress on " Nature Studies," and correlates these with 
literature. The Normal schools provide special courses of 
training in object lessons, and many writers outline systematic 



OBJECT LESSONS 91 

courses of work for our schools. Among other suggestive au- 
thors are Sheldon, Calkins, Prince, Walker, and Ricks. The 
probabilities arc that object lessons, though sometimes em- 
ployed amiss, have come to stay in our schools. (See Impor- 
tance of Object Lessons.) 

INSTRUCTION IN OBJECT LESSONS. 

The following topics deserve the teacher's attention at 
this point: (1) The Courses of Object Lessons; (2) The 
Method of Instruction ; and (3) The Importance of Object 
Lessons. 

COURSES OF OBJECT LESSONS. 

Lessons on objects should begin when the child enters 
school ; they should continue through all the years of school, 
the most interesting objects and the simplest phases coming 
up for study at first, the harder object coming later and the 
method developing into complete experiment. (See first three 
principles of instruction.) In order to systematize object les- 
sons, the schools should offer courses in Form, Color, Parts, 
Qualities, Facts, etc. 

I. FORM. 

Three things deserve our present attention : (1) Embodi- 
ments of Forms ; (2) The Method of Teaching Forms ; and 
(3) The Importance of Teaching Forms. 

The Embodiment of Forms. The objects of the child's 
environment are embodiments of elementary forms into which 
(see chapter on Drawing) these objects can be analyzed. 
Every school-room should be supplied with a box of geomet- 
rical forms and such objects as resemble these forms. If the 
teacher cannot construct the geometrical forms, he can proba- 
bly induce his directors to pay for the necessary supply. The 
Milton Bradley Company, Springfield, Massachusetts, is ready 
to supply all the special materials for object lessons. Supple- 



92 



PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 



mentary objects should be collected by the pupils under the 
teacher's supervision. 

Elementary Forms. The following catalogue of forms will 
serve as an outline of the course of lessons on Form. Pupils 
should know these forms at the age of fourteen. 



Elements of Form. 


Lines. 




Angles. 


Polygons. 


1. Lines. 


1. Straight. 




1. Right. 


1. Triangles. 


2. Angles. 


2. Curved. 




2. Acute. 


2. Quadrilaterals. 


3. Surfaces. 


3. Broken. 




3. Obtuse. 


3. Pentagons. 


4. Volumes. 


4. Parallel. 

5. Oblique. 






4. Hexagons. 

5. Heptagons. 

6. Octagons. 

7. Nonagons. 

8. Decagons. 


Triangles. 


Quadrilaterals. 




Circle. 


Circular Forms. 


1. Angles. 


1. Parallelograms. 


1. Circumference. 


1. Oval. 


(1) Right. 


(1) Square. 




2. Diameter. 


2. Ellipse. 


(2) Obtuse. 


(2) Rectangle. 


3. Radius. 


3. Ring. 


(3) Acute. 


(3) Rhombus. 


4. Arc. 


4. Crescent. 


2. Sides. 


(4) Rhomboid. 


5. Chord. 




(1) Equilateral. 


2. Trapezoid. 




6. Segment. 




(2) Isosceles. 


3. Trapezium. 




7. Sector. 




(3) Scalene. 






8. Tangent. 

9. Secant. 

10. Quadrant. 

11. Semi-circle. 

12. Semi-circumfer- 

ence. 




Polyhedrons. 


Round Bodies. 


Conic Sections. 


1. Prism. 


1. 


Cylinder. 


1. Ellipse. 


(1) Cube. 


2. 


Cone 




2. Parabola. 


(2) Parallelopipedon. 3. 


Frustvun of Cone. 


3. Hyperbola. 


(3) Triangular prism, etc. 4. 


Sphere. 




2. Pyramid. 


5. 


Hemisphere. 


Complex Forms. 


3. Frustum of Pyramid. 6. 


Ovoid. 


1. Catenary. 


4. Plinth. 


7. 


Ellipsoid. 


2. Spirals. 




8. Circular Plinth. 


3. Cycloid. 



The Method of Teaching Forms. (1) The first thing to 
do in teaching a form, is to require the pupil to observe it. It 
is not enough to show the pupil one example ; others must be 
added to stimulate comparison, thus prompting abstraction 
and conception. (2) Since the names of forms cannot be dis- 
covered by the pupil's unaided effort, these must be given by 



OBJECT LESSONS 93 

the teacher, but always in strictest association with the form 
itself. (3) The teacher should draw the form in question or 
construct it, and require the pupils to do so. This require- 
ment will be an incentive to close observation, and a prepara- 
tion for the pupil's inductive description, or definition, of the 
form under consideration. (4) The pupil should be required 
to define, i.e., to describe the form observed, named, pictured, 
and made. This requirement will stimulate the closest atten- 
tion, and develop the power to express actual knowledge. (5) 
The pupil should be encouraged to discover as many occur- 
rences of the studied form as can be found in his environ- 
ment. This requirement will make the pupil a deductive 
thinker, and lead him to use his knowledge of form in the in- 
terpretation of his surroundings. (6) The teacher should lead 
the pupils to see why one form rather than others is used in 
practical life. This will make the pupil a thinker, and teach 
him to help himself in many practical difficulties. The aesthetic 
powers of forms should also be taught. 

Importance of Teaching' Forms. (1) The study of forms 
(see chapter on Drawing) is a most excellent discipline. (2) 
A knowledge of forms is essential in the interpretation of the 
physical universe. (3) The culture and knowledge obtained 
in the study of forms is an essential equipment in the study 
of geometry, in art, and in many practical affairs. 

II. COLOR. 

a. The Nature of Color. 
In order to understand the nature of color, it is necessary 
to study (1) The Solar Spectrum, (2) Synthesis of Colors, (3) 
Analysis of Compounds, (4) Complements, (5) Harmonies, and 
(6) Broken Colors. The Young-Helmholtz theory (see Nat- 
ural Philosophy) is quite generally accepted by the scientists 
of the present time. A very convenient statement of this the- 
ory and its applications to education is to be found in " Color 



94 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

in the Schoolroom," by the Milton Bradley Company. Spring- 
field, Massachusetts. This little book should be in the hands 
of every teacher. 

The Solar Spectrum. " According to this theory all 
color in Nature is contained in sunlight, which is practically 
white light. When a beam of sunlight, admitted into a dark- 
ened room, passes through a glass prism it is spread out like 
a fan into a band of beautiful colors, beginning at one end 
with a dark red, gradually changing to a brighter red, which 
runs into an orange and then through yellow, green, and blue 
to violet, which gradually fades away into darkness." This 
band of colors is termed the Solar Spectrum. " The beam of 
sunlight is composed of a great number of different kinds of 
rays, which in passing through the prism are refracted or bent 
from their direct course, and some are bent more than others ; 
the red least of all, and the violet most. It is supposed that 
light is propagated by waves or undulations, in an extremely 
rare substance termed ether, which is supposed to occupy all 
space and transparent bodies. These waves are thought to be 
similar to sound waves in the air, or the ripples on the smooth 
surface of a pond when a pebble is throw^n into it." 

Standard Colors. " The standards must, of course, be chosen 
from the solar spectrum. The amount tliat rays of light are 
refracted from a straight line in passing through a prism is in 
proportion to the number of waves or undulations per second, 
and in inverse proportion to the length of the waves. The red 
waves are refracted the least and are the longest, while the 
violet rays are refracted the most and are the shortest." The 
following wave-lengths are assumed as standard colors : 6600, 
Red ; 6100, Orange ; 5800, Yellow ; 5200, Green ; 4700, Blue ; 
4200, Violet. (The figures represent ten millionths of a 
millimetre.) 

Scales of Color. (1) "Any pure or full color mixed with 
white, or reduced by strong light," is termed a Tint. (2) " A 



OBJECT LESSONS 95 

full color in shade, i.e., with a low degree of illumination," is 
termed a Shade. (3) " A Scale is a series of colors consisting 
of a pure or full color at the centre and graduated by a succes- 
sion of steps to a light tint on one side and a deep shade on the 
other." (4) " A color mixed with a smaller quantity of an- 
other color is called a Hue." Thus a scale of color is any 
spectrum transition from tint through hue into shade. (5) 
Accordingly there may be as many Scales of Color as there are 
hues or standards or tones in the spectrum. 

Synthesis of Colors. "If having a prismatic spectrum 
thrown on a screen in a dark room we hold two small mirrors 
in the path of the light, one so placed as to receive, for exam- 
ple, the red rays and the other the violet rays, the mirrors may 
be so moved as to reflect the red and the violet rays on one 
spot on another screen. The result of this arrangement will 
be a mingling of the two colors to produce a color between the 
violet and the red usually called purple. And so we may 
select any other two colors and thus determine what color is 
produced by the mingling of any two or more spectrum colors. 
But it is very inconvenient to make such tests, even with the 
best apparatus and most favorable conditions." It is possible, 
however, to produce practically the same effects by means of 
the Color Wheel and the Maxwell Disks. (See the Bradley 
books.) If graduated disks are used, the exact proportions 
entering into composition may be observed and recorded. 

Analysis of Compounds. The colors found in Nature 
and Art are generally composite colors, as in leaves, flowers, 
ribbons, etc. By combining and adjusting graduated Maxwell 
disks, it is possible to imitate the color of leaves, ribbons, etc., 
and thus to ascertain the exact analysis of such color-com- 
pounds. 

Complements. " As white light is the sum of all color, 
if we take from white light a given color, the remaining color 
is the Complement of the given color. When the eye has been 



96 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

fatigiiod by looking intently for a few mc/mdn at a rcA Hpot on 
a white wall and \h then Hliglitly turnf^l U> the wall, a faint 
tint of a bluish ^een is Hef;n, and thin i.s fulled the aeeidental 
eolor of ill'- red, whieh in HUpposed to be identical with its 
eornpieine-nl^iry eolor. Theoretieally the a^mplennentxiry of 
yellow i.s a very Hiiglit violet blue, and of hliie an orange 
yellow. The eornplementary of green i.s violet red and of 
violet a y(;llow grex;n or grr^en yf;l!ovv. The complementary 
of red is blue gnxjn, and of orange a grecjn blue. 

Harmonies. " Two wlors are said to 1x3 in harmony or to 
combine harmoniously if the effect is ])leasing when they are in 
juxtapf>sition or are used in composition. There are about 
five species of eolor harmony. (Jompf/'/mrnt/t/n/ w>lors are har- 
monious ; for the other Hpccies the student is referred to the 
Bradley system. 

Broken Colors. "In addition t/> the spectnim standards 
and intermediate hues and their tints and shades, there is an- 
other r;lass of (^>lors which in general terms may be called 
Jirokcn Colorn. A broken c/Aor, as a broken red for exam- 
ple, is a standard red mixed with neutral gray, that is with 
black and whit<!. Jn still other words, a broken color is a 
tint of that color in shadow. In Nature nearly all colors are 
broken." The same thing may be said of tapestries, hangings, 
carjiets, ladicis' dress goods, ata. " Ef;ru," for example, is a 
broken orange yellow, whose; propf)rtions in t(!rms of 100 are 
ora'd/ja J 2, ydbrw 15, vjldic. 17, and IdarJc 56. 

b. TnHtruation in Color. 

'i'liree things deserve the att(!ntion of ti'aclKjrs oi' (;olor : (1) 
Course of Lessons; (2) The Method of Instruction ; and (3) 
The Importance of CJolor-Lessfjiis. 

Course of Lessons. To satisfy the deujands of cidture 
and life, tin; coursf; of cxdor-lessons should embracx; the follow- 
ing subjects: (1) The Solar SjKictrum ; (2) Standard Colors; 



OBJECT LES80NS 97 

(3) Matching Colors; (4) Mixing Colors; (5) AnalyBis of 
Colors ; (0) DIsoov(!ry of Complomontary Colors ; (7) Har- 
monics of Color ; (8) Broken Colors ; (li) Language of Colors ; 
and (10) Tests for Color-Blindncss. 

The Method of Instruction in Color-Lessons. The 
nature of the task in color-lessons makes it necessary for 
teachers to consider (1) Preparations for Color-Lessons^ and 
(2) The Recitation-Method in Color-Lessons. 

Preparatifjns for Color- Lessons. (1) The ncxi^HHary mMerials 
for a color-lesson must be procured. 'J'iiis task devolves in 
part upon the tf^acher and in part upon the pupils. Every 
school-room in which color-lessons are to be taught should, if 
possible, 1k! supplied with prisms, charts, color-wheel and the 
Maxwell disks, color-tops and the Maxwell disks, colored 
crayons, water colors, colored papers that do not a>ntain 
arsfjnic. Silks, worsteds, etc., should Ixi added. Pupils 
should be encf>uraged to collect colored leaves, worst^^ls, etc. 
When the time for recitfition has come, the necessary mate- 
rials should bo on hand and in working order. 

(2) It will be necessary for the ifac/ijir t^j make many ex- 
periments with the prism, color-wheel, etc., to be sure that he 
can make the desire^l points in the coming recitations. 

(3) The pupils should Ixi required to make such prepara- 
tions an the nature of the case may demand. As a rule only 
older pupils can Ik; expected to make formal preparations for 
color-lessfjns. 

The Redt/dion-Mdlt/jd in (hhr- Lessons. (1) AH r;olor- 
lessons should begin with Ohservaiion. The observations 
necessary in color-lessons must oft^;n amount to experiment. 

(2) In/Iudir/a should follow obs^;rvation. 7'he possibility 
of a.sccrtaining general truths is, indeed, the great reason for 
observing colors in these lessons. When, for examj)le, the 
pupils have oVjserved the spectrum many times, they should 
be led to inquire whether the same results can always be ex- 

7 



98 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

pected. The habit of looking for that which will always 
happen in mixing colors, in complements, in harmonies, etc., 
should be early developed. 

(3) Deduction should follow induction. When the pupil 
has found some general truth, he should be led to make it a 
life-rule. It is thus that science becomes art. 

(4) All the technical terms needed in color-lessons should be 
introduced in strict association with that which they signify. 
Language lessons should follow. 

(5) The teacher should strive to make color-lessons as in- 
teresting and useful as possible, thus enlisting the heart, the 
imagination, and the will. 

(6) For special directions in lessons on complementary col- 
ors, harmony of colors, language of colors, and for methods of 
testing children for color-blindness, see " Color in the School- 
Koom," or Calkin's " Manual of Object Teaching." 

Importance of Color-Lessons. To appreciate the im- 
portance of lessons on color, the reader must understand their 
efficiency as a means in culture and instruction. 

(1) There is a general agreement among educators that 
color-lessons when properly given utilize and improve all the 
functions of the mind. (Let the Methods-Student show this 
truth in detail.) 

(2) The knowledge of color is interesting for its own sake 
and a means in the sesthetic and practical interpretation of the 
universe. 

(3) The culture and knowledge acquired in color-lessons 
serve many of the ends of life, and cannot be omitted in our 
times without serious disadvantage to millions of people. 

(4) All teachers should, therefore, be able to give such les- 
sons. The evidence of such ability should be as much in 
demand by those who license and employ toachors as the 
evidence of ability in the otiicr branches of our curriculum. 
Normal schools should offer the most thorough course in colors 



OBJECT LESSONS 



99 



and the method of teaching colors. The task of thus equip- 
ping teachers must fall partly on the department of natural 
philosophy and manual training and partly on that of peda- 
gogy. The most remarkable progress along these lines is 
visible everywhere, and the prospects are decidedly encour- 



aarmff. 



III. PARTS OF OBJECTS. 



Three things deserve our attention in lessons on the parts 
of objects : (1) The Course of Lessons ; (2) The Method of 
Instruction ; and (3) The Importance of Lessons on the Parts 
of Objects. 

The Course of Lessons. The following catalogue of 
objects and their parts will serve as an illustrative outline of 
the work to be done and the domains of Nature and Art from 
which to choose the objects to be studied : 



1. Cent. 


2. Scissors. 


3. Key. 


4. Lead Pencil. 


(1) Surface. 


(1) Shaft. 


(1) Shaft. 


(1) Wood. 


(2) Faces. 


(2) Bows. 


(2) Ring. 


(2) Lead. 


(3) Edges. 


(3) Limbs. 


(3) Barrel. 


(3) Head. 


(4) Milling. 


(4) Blades. 


(4) Lip. 


(4) Point. 


(5) Impression. 


(5) Edges. 


(5) Wards. 


(5) Number. 


(6) Image. 


(6) Back. 


(6) Grooves. 


(6) Trade Mark. 


(7) Superscription. 


(7) Point. 






(8) Date. 


(8) Rivets. 






6. Bell. 


6. Shoe. 


7. Chair. 


8. Knife. 


(1) Handle. 


(1) Upper. 


(1) Posts. 


(1) Handle. 


1) Nut. 


(2) Binding. 


(2) Rounds. 


1) Frame. 


2) Catch. 


(3) Seams. 


(3) Back. 


2) Rivets. 


3) Shaft. 


(4) Lining. 


(4) Seat. 


3) Heel. 


4) Ferule. 


(5) Strings. 


(5) Pillars. 


4) Back. 


5) Number. 


(6) Buttons. 


(6) Spindles. 


5) Spring. 


(2) Cup. 


(7) Eyelets. 


(7) Slats. 


6) Sides. 


1) Border. 


(8) Vamps. 


(8) Balls. 


7) Plate. 


2) Rim. 


(9) Welt. 


(9) Beads. 


8) Grooves. 


3) Edge. 


(10) Shank. 


(10) Scallops. 


(2) Joint. 


(3) Tongue. 


(11) Counter. 


(U) Brace. 


1) Pivot. 


1) Loop. 


(12) Tongue. 




(3) Blade. 


2) Clapper. 


(13) Sole. 




1) Sides. 




(14) Insole. 




2) Notch. 




(15) Tip. 




3) Back. 




(16) Heel. 




4) Edge. 

5) Point. 

6) Maker's Na; 



100 



PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 



Wheel. 

(1) Nave. 

(2) Box. 

(3) Spokes. 

(4) Arm of Axletree. 

(5) Linchpin. 

(6) Rim. 

1) Felloes. 

(7) Tu-e. 

(8) Rivets. 

(9) Centre. 

(10) Circumference. 



13. Orange. 

(1) Peel. 

1) Rind. 

2) White. 

(2) Juice. 

(3) Pulp. 

(4) Seeds. 

(5) Eye. 

(6) Divisions. 

(7) Membrane. 



10. Column. 

(1) Entablature. 

1) Cornice. 

2) Frieze. 

3) Architrave. 

(2) Shaft. 

1) Capital. 

2) Base. 

(3) Pedestal. 

1) Cornice. 

2) Dado. 

3) Plinth. 



14. Acorn. 

(1) Cup. 

1) Stem. 

2) Scales. 

3) Edges. 

(2) Nut. 

1) Shell. 

2) Kernel. 

3) Point. 

4) Scar. 

5) Membrane. 



11. Shell. 

(1) Body. 

1) Mouth. 

2) Lip. 

3) Beak. 

4) Canal. 

(2) Spire. 

1) Whorls. 

2) Sutures. 

3) Apex. 



15. Insect. 

(1) Head. 

1) Mouth. 

2) Eyes. 

3) Feelers. 

(2) Thorax. 

1) Wings. 

2) Legs. 

(3) Abdomen. 
1) Segments. 



12. Flower. 

(1) Calyx. 
1) Sepals. 

(2) Corolla. 
1) Petals. 

a. Limb. 
6. Claw. 

(3) Pistils. 

1) Stigma. 

2) Style. 

3) Ovary. 

(4) Stamen. 

1) Anther. 

2) Filament. 

3) Pollen. 

16. Bird. 

(1) Head. 

1) Beak. 

2) Tongue. 

3) Eyes. 

(2) Neck. 
1) Nape. 

(3) Body. 

1) Wings. 

2) Limbs. 

(4) Tail. 



The Method of Lessons on Object-Parts. The objects 
in question should be observed analytically. The names of 
the parts studied should be introduced in the closest connec- 
tion with the observation of the parts. The pupil should be 
led to inquire into the uses and history of the parts of objects 
in their surroundings. " The Young Folks' Cyclopaedia of 
Common Things," published by Henry Holt & Co., is a most 
excellent reference book for teachers. Sheldon's " Object 
Lessons," published by Scribner, Armstrong & Co., should be 
in the hands of every teacher. 

Importance of Lessons on Object- Parts. (1) There is 
probably no better means of cultivating the habit of analytic 
observation and ^practical thoughtfulness than these lessons on 
the parts of objects. These lessons also develop the habit of 
associating words and sentences with the realities for which 
they stand. This is an ideal result. 



OBJECT LESSONS 



101 



(2) Analytic knowledge of objects is a great satisfaction to 
most minds, and a mighty stimulus in the formation of the 
habit of scientific inquiry. 

(3) The habit of analytic observation and the knowledge 
thus acquired, are among the best equipments in theoretical 
and practical life. Apart from such equipment, theory is often 
fancy and practice full of blunders. 



IV. QUALITIES OF OBJECTS. 

Lessons on the qualities of objects should be added to those 
on form, color, and parts. It is probably most convenient to 
teach qualities in connection with parts and uses. Three 
things deserve our attention at this point : (1) The Course of 
Lessons ; (2) The Method of Instruction ; and (3) The Impor- 
tance of Lessons on Qualities. 

The Course of Lessons. The following; catalogue of 
qualities will serve as an outline of the course : 



Extension. 


Resistance. 




Sight. 


Taste. 


Round. 


Hard. 


Pliable. 


Transparent. 


Edible. 


Square. 


Soft. 


Elastic. 


Translucent. 


Pungent. 


Angular. 


Rough. 


Ductile. 


Opaque. 


Sapid. 


Triangular. 


Smooth. 


Malleable. 


Brilliant. 


Nutritious. 


Rectangular. 


Stiff. 


Buoyant. 




Tasteless. 


Cylindrical. 


Limber. 


Compressible. 


Smell. 


Emollient. 


Spherical. 


Light. 


Pulverable. 


Odorous. 


Salient. 


Concave. 


Heavy. 


Fusible. 


Aromatic. 


etc. 


Spiral. 


Solid. 


Volatile. 


Saline. 




Serrated. 


Liquid. 


Inflammable. 






Amorphous. 


Brittle. 
Flexible. 
Adhesive. 
Tenacious. 


Combustible. 

Soluble. 

Insoluble. 







The Method of Lessons on Qualities. Qualities should 
generally be studied in connection with parts and uses. The 
pupil should be led to experience the qualities which the 
teacher wishes to teach. The name should then be intro- 
duced. The pupils should also be led to think to what uses 



102 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

objects having such qualities can be put just because they have 
these qualities. Sheldon's " Lessons on Objects" is the teach- 
er's indispensable companion. 

Importance of Lessons on Qualities. The study of 
qualities is the study of the forces of the physical universe, and 
is probably the most practical mental employment. 



V. NATURE STUDIES. 

The informal study of plants, animals, minerals, etc., just 
as we come upon them in Nature, is termed Nature Study. 
Such lessons will be the only opportunity of many pupils to 
gain an insight into our great and wonderful world. Three 
things deserve our attention : (1) The Course of Studies; (2) 
The Method of Instruction; and (3) The Importance of 
Nature Studies. 

The Course of Nature Studies. The course of lessons 
in nature studies must be left in great part to the teacher, his 
selection of studies depending upon his surroundings. Never- 
theless teachers of nature studies should select subjects as much 
as possible within some system. To succeed in this attempt 
teachers need a training in the natural sciences. 

Botany. The habit of observing plants should be culti- 
vated in the pupils of our schools. The teacher should strive 
to rouse great interest in these observations, leading the chil- 
dren to think for themselves, and to come into close touch 
with Nature. Our pupils should know the names of the com- 
mon plants, flowers, trees, etc., in their neighborhood, in con- 
nection with some of the most interesting and useful facts per- 
taining to such plants. Miss Youmans' "First Book of 
Botany," published by Appleton & Co., is a very excellent 
companion for the teacher in this work. 

Zoology. The habit of observing the insects, birds, mam- 
mals, etc., in the neighborhood, should be developed in our 



OBJECT LESSONS 103 

pupils. The teacher should strive to rouse great interest in 
these studies, leading the pupils to think for themselves and 
to come into touch with the heart of Nature. Our pupils 
should know the names of common animals, their homes, to- 
gether with some of their habits, uses, etc. " Natural History- 
Object Lessons," published by Heath & Co., is a convenient 
companion for teachers. 

Note. Courses similar to those just suggested for plants 
and animals, should be planned in mineralogy, physiology, 
etc. But, although in the teacher's mind there should be some 
system of selecting subjects of study, great care must be taken 
to keep the lessons from becoming stiff and formal. 

The Lesson-Method of Nature Studies. The most op- 
portune time of the day should be devoted to the study of 
some interesting plant, insect, etc., found by the pupils or the 
teacher. These lessons need not come every day, nor at the 
same hour, and should never be longer than ten or fifteen 
minutes. The greatest freedom of inquiry should be allowed 
to pupils, and the teacher should meet these inquiries with 
such help as seems best. The pupils should be encouraged to 
find out as much as possible by their own efforts. The teacher 
must supervise inquiry by means of skilful questions. The 
teacher should be prepared to lead the pupils without seeming 
to do so formally. 

The Importance of Nature Studies. In our days very 
great stress is laid on " nature study." Educators insist on 
it, that nature study is an invaluable means of culture and a 
necessary preparation for the understanding and appreciation 
of literature, etc. 

The Culture- Value of Nature Studies. In these informal 
inquiries into the phenomena of Nature as it presents itself to 
experience, the first aim is to discover facts. But inquiry 
does not end with the ascertainment of facts; the pupil is 
stimulated to form opinions. Thus it appears that the per- 



104 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

ceptive and reflective faculties come iuto service, but they 
come iuto service in such a way as to require the most faithful 
employment of memory, imagination, taste, and will. 

The Instruction Value of Nature Studies. The knowledge 
acquired in nature studies is charmingly interesting in itself — 
a veritable revelation of mysteries — a glimpse into the great 
thoughts of God, of which objects are simply the embodiment. 
Moreover, the ideas and facts thus gathered are the proper 
data for later scientific conclusions. 

The Practical Value of Nature Studies. The habit of ob- 
serving plants, animals, stones, etc., together with the know- 
ledge thus acquired, will help to fit our pupils for various in- 
dustries, such as farming, gardening, care of animals, etc. The 
practical results of nature study are alone worth the time they 
require. 

The Method of Object Lessons. The distinctive feature 
of object lessons is the requirement that all inquiry must begin 
with sensible observation. This requirement makes it neces- 
sary to procure a suitable supply of materials, with which the 
teacher must become thoroughly familiar. The recitation 
should generally be conducted according to some definite plan 
thought out by the teacher in preparing for the recitation. 
Generally no formal preparation is to be required on the part 
of pupils. For details see the method of lessons on form, 
color, parts, qualities, and nature studies. 

The Importance of Object Lessons. The importance of 
object lessons is generally admitted to be very great. (1) As 
pointed out under form, color, parts, qualities, and nature 
studies, object lessons, although designed primarily for the 
cultivation of the senses, in connection with memory, judgment), 
and attention, really call the whole pupil into service. (2) 
Then, too, the knowledge acquired in object lessons is " first 
hand," and therefore warm with interest for learners. Such 
knowledge becomes the mightiest incentive to subsequent scien- 



OBJECT LESSONS 105 

tific research. (3) The practical results reach into every de- 
partment of mental culture and mto almost every department 
of practical life. (4) The ability of teachers to teach object 
lessons effectively should be developed in all schools preparing 
teachers. 



106 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

CHAPTER III. 

READING. 

The pedagogics of reading is concerned with two problems 
(1) The Nature of Eeading ; and (2) Instruction in Reading. 

A. THE NATURE OF READING. 
It serves our present purpose to study the nature of reading 
under three heads : (1) The " Subject" of Reading ; (2) The 
Psychology of Reading; and (3) The History of Reading. 

I. THE SUBJECT OF EEADING. 

The logical phases of reading are pronunciation, comprehen- 
sion, and expression. 

Pronunciation. Reading presupposes visible records of 
thought and sentiment. Reading consists of interpreting these 
records and expressing their content. It is necessary, there- 
fore, to know the mental value of words and to acquire the 
power to pronounce words. The mental value of words is 
learned in the process of learning to pronounce. It is evident 
(First Principle of Instruction) that pronunciation begins 
with imitation and ends in synthesis. Analysis intervenes 
when pronunciation begins with whole words. Pronuncia- 
tion, i.e., the complete utterance of a word-whole, implies 
enunciation, articulation, and accentuation. The distinct utter- 
ance of the sounds of a word is termed Enunciation. The 
utterance of a word- whole, as " control," is somewhat inter- 
rupted by oral rests, or pauses. The resulting parts of words 
are termed Syllables. The synthesis of syllables into word- 
wholes is termed Articulation. Vocal stress on syllables is 
termed Accent 



EEADING 107 

Laws of Pronunciation. The tendencies in pronuncia- 
tion are probably phonetic laws, though arbitrary usage has 
introduced many exceptions into the English language. 

Laws of Enunciation. (1) Vowels are generally short in 
two or three letter words, except such as end with r; before 
two or more consonants the first of which is not r; and in un- 
accented syllables, except when followed by w or r. (2) When 
a vowel is separated by a single consonant from final e, that 
vowel is generally long, and the e silent. When two vowels, 
not proper diphthongs, come together, the former is generally 
long, and the latter silent. (3) When it follows w and is not 
followed by r, a is generally equivalent to short o. (4) When 
r separates a from final e, a is circumflexed, and e, silent ; as, 
hare. A is also circumflexed before ir, and the i, silent. (5) 
Before r, and r with another consonant, a is generally Italian ; 
as, car, barn. Such words as war, carry, and parallel, are ex- 
ceptions. (6) A is short Italian before ss, sk, sp, st,ff,fi, nt, 
and nc, except when w precedes a. (7) A is broad before w, 
II, Ik, Id, It, ub, ul, and uglit, and when w precedes ar. (8) Before 
ign and igh, e is generally equivalent to long a. (9) E is gen- 
erally waved before r; as, her. (10) When the liquids are fol- 
lowed by en final in an unaccented syllable, e is short ; but 
when it follows d, k, p, s, t, v, x, sh, and th, e is generally silent. 
(11) When d final follows 6, c, d, n, ss, p, and u or eiv long, 
e is generally short. (12) When il or in final is found in an 
unaccented syllable, i is generally short. (13) After w and 
before k, oo is generally short ; as, wood, took. When w does 
not precede or r follow, oo is generally long ; as, mood, soothe. 
(14) O is generally circumflexed before r, and ught; as, for, 
thought. (15) is generally silent in final or without an 
accent after c, ck, s, or t. (16) When r, sh, and y, separate u 
from final e, u is equivalent to oo, and e is silent. (17) Z7is 
^generally equivalent to consonantal w in words and syllables 
beginning with qu; in dissyllables and trisyllables where ui 



108 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

or ue follows q; in words beginning with cu followed by i; 
and in unaccented syllables beginning with ^ where u is followed 
by a, i, or o. (16) Obscure vowels occur only in unaccented 
syllables. (17) Cand g are generally soft before e, i, and y ; 
and hard before a, o, u, k, I, r, and t. (18) H is generally 
silent after g and r; after a vowel in the same syllable ; and 
before some vowels. (19) L is generally silent between a and 
/, a and k, a and m, a and v. (20) N is generally equivalent 
to ng hard before k and q, and before e, g, and x hard. (21) 
/S'is generally hard after vowels, and all consonants except/, 
hy p, and t In don and sure, it is soft after all consonants. 
(22) 7 is generally silent before ch; also, after s in dissyllables 
ending in en and le. (23) TA is breathed before r, ir, and some 
vowels ; also as final consonants, except in verbs and generally 
in plural nouns. (24) Th is generally voiced as first letters of 
personal, relative, and demonstrative pronouns, and adverbs ; 
in plurals of words ending in th; in verbs ending in th and the; 
and in the preposition with or its derivatives. (25) Before any 
vowel except o, wh is generally equivalent to hio. (26) W is 
generally silent in words and syllables beginning with wr; after 
a, and in the improper diphthong ow. (27) Xis generally hard 
before an accented syllable beginning with a vowel, or silent 
A, but soft before syllables beginning with a consonant. (28) 
There are many less important rules of enunciation and articu- 
lation; but space does not permit us to record them here. 
Teachers should study the principles of pronunciation more 
fully in Worcester's Unabridged Dictionary, or in some good 
book on Orthoepy. 

Laws of Articulation. (1) The natural rests of the vocal 
organs in pronunciation generally determine the syllables, as 
in observation. (2) Prefixes and suffixes generally constitute 
new syllables, as in improper, contentment, expulsion. (3) 
In articulation the etymological composition of a word is 
generally less attended to than ease of utterance, though the 



READING 109 

two tendencies often result in the same spelling ; as, compo- 
nent, etymological. 

Laws of Accentuation. (1) Derivative words take for a 
time, if not permanently, the accent of the original words from 
which they are formed ; as, contentment, comprehend. (2) 
Ease of utterance has some influence in deciding the place of 
the accent ; as, utensil, excellent. (3) In words of two sylla- 
bles there is a tendency to accent the first syllable of a noun, 
and the last of a verb ; as, convert, accent, record. (4) In 
words of three or more syllables there is a strong tendency to 
accent the antepenult; as, contemplate, eloquent, intricate. 
(5) These tendencies of accent have many exceptions by con- 
flict with each other. The student should refer to Worcester's 
Unabridged Dictionary for a full discussion. 

Comprehension. Comprehension in reading, i.e., getting 
the thought and sentiment, begins in the process of associating 
written with spoken words ; it ends in the sentential associa- 
tion of words. That which is orally read, but without think- 
ing, is only pronunciation. Intelligible reading is impossible, 
as we shall see, for one who does not understand and feel what 
he reads. 

Expression. " Expression" in reading denotes the effective 
conveyance of thought and sentiment by adaptations in pronun- 
ciation, by facial movements, and by gestures. The most im- 
portant means of expression in reading, are those adaptations 
in pronunciation commonly termed fluency, time, pitch, force, 
quality of voice. 

Fluency. The ability to recognize quickly and to pronounce 
readily the words as they are seen in reading, is termed Flu- 
ency. Lisping and stammering are two forms of violated 
fluency. (1) Lisping is an obstructed utterance of soft s, the 
sound given being flat th ; as, thick for sick. (2) Stammering 
is an obstructed utterance of syllables. Sometimes it is impos- 
sible for one who stammers, to utter the intended syllable at 



110 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

all, and sometimes he repeats the syllable involuntarily ; as, 
st, st, stand. The causes and remedies of lisping and stam- 
mering will be discussed by and by. 

Emphasis. Any impressive way of uttering words or 
phrases in reading, is termed Emphasis. There are four 
species of emphasis ; namely, Stress, Pause, Inflection, and 
Time. (1) The extra force with which some word or phrase 
is uttered in reading, is termed Stress. Stress may be com- 
pound, intermittent, median, radical, or vanishing. (See 
Elocution.) (2) When, after uttering some word in a sen- 
tence, the reader stops, or allows an interval of time, before he 
proceeds, the emphasis is termed Pause. (3) Ascent and de- 
scent of pitch in the utterance of a word in reading, is termed 
Inflection. (4) Quick, ordinary, and slow utterance of a word 
in reading, is termed Time. 

The Laws of Emphasis. (1) Words expressing new ideas 
are emphasized. (2) Words expressing important ideas are 
emphasized. (3) Words expressing contrasted ideas are em- 
phasized. 

Movement. Every variety of pace in reading a sentence, is 
termed 3Iovement. It is the function of movement to express 
the reader's feelings. 

Pitch. The degree of elevation of the voice in reading, is 
termed Pitch. Pitch is high, medium, low, monotonous, or 
varied. It is the function of pitch to express sentiments. 

Force. Degree of stress in reading a sentence, is termed 
Force. Force is either loud or intense. The degrees of force 
are subdued, moderate, and loud. It is the function of force 
to aid the ear of the hearer, and to express strong feeling. 

Quality of Voice. Tone of voice in reading is termed Qual- 
ity. The qualities of voice are pure, aspirated, guttural, 
nasal, and orotund. It is the function of " quality of voice" 
to express the various feelings and shades of feelings in 
readers. 



READING 111 

II. THE PSYCHOLOGY OF READING. 

In view of the " subject" of reading (see pages 106 to 110) 
we conclude that the mental acts in reading are those involved 
in pronunciation, comprehension, and expression. 

Pronunciation. (1) The " facts" of pronunciation, whether 
they be the facts of imitation, analysis, or synthesis, are learned, 
as in other studies, by observation, i.e., by the use of the judg- 
ment in connection with the senses. This connection implies 
attention, memory, and imagination. 

(2) The " principles" (laws) of pronunciation, whether they 
be those of imitation, analysis, or synthesis, are learned, as in 
other studies, by induction. 

(3) By deductive application of principles, pronunciation 
becomes practical skill. 

Comprehension. (1) Which functions of the intellect must 
be employed in reading, depends on the contents of the page 
in question. (2) The emotional sequences (see the tenth law 
of mental activity) in reading, depend on the character of the 
intellectual activity. (3) The reader must use his will both in 
getting the mental contents of a page and, as we shall see, in 
expressing these contents. 

Expression. (1) The "facts" of expression in reading, 
whether they be those of fluency, time, force, pitch, emphasis, 
or quality of voice, must be learned by observation. (2) The 
laws of expression, like other laws, are learned by induction, 
and (3) applied by deduction. 

III. HISTORY OF READING. 

The history of reading is conveniently studied under two 
heads : (1) The History of Methods of Instruction ; and (2) 
Reading in the Curriculum of Schools. 

History of Methods. (See pages 121 to 124, and also 
Painter's History of Education.) 



112 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

Reading in Schools. Reading was a subject of study in 
oriental countries. The classical nations began to lay great 
stress on reading. The darkness of the Middle Ages obscured 
the importance of the subject, but could not drive reading out 
of the schools. Reading has become the " great" study in all 
modern nations. 

B. INSTRUCTION IN READING. 

The special features of instruction in reading come to view 
under the following heads : (1) The order of the teacher's 
tasks ; (2) The methods of instruction ; (3) The courses of in- 
struction ; and (4) The importance of reading. 

Order of the Teacher's Tasks. In teaching reading, the 
tasks, as we know from tlic nature of tlie subject and the prin- 
ciples of instruction, are as follows : (1) Transition from oral 
to visible language, (2) The pui)il's emancipation in pronun- 
ciation ; (3) Fluency in expression ; and (4) Adequate mental 
development. 

The Method of Instruction. In reading, as in other 
branches, the pupil sliould l)e required to observe individuals 
of a genus, infer the genus by analogy, and assume the genus 
in subsequent study. (Tenth Principle of Instruction in con- 
nection with the psychology of reading.) Accordingly, the 
vocabulary and sentences of elementary reading should be 
representatives of genera. In pronunciation, for examj)le, rep- 
resentative words must be found by the teacher and care- 
fully taught. AVith these representative words, many analo- 
gous words must be associated, until the pupil arrives at the 
rule to be learned. In this way the inductive m(>thod will 
become a habit of tlie ]>u])il, and liis emancipation in ])ronun- 
ciation assured. In due time ne^v words will come to the 
learner as individuals of some family or s])ecies Avith wliich he 
has already become acquainted. Thus induction finds its sup- 
plement in deduction, and only anomalies will trouble the 



READING 113 

learner. Subsequent lessons should tend to develop accuracy 
and rapidity in deductive pronunciation. Of course, anoma- 
lies and complexities can be mastered only by special and 
persistent drills. Em})hasis, movement, quality of voice, etc., 
can all be taught in the same way. 

An Ideal Vocabulary. The following graded list of rep- 
resentative words is constructed to meet our requirements, and 
must be taught in constant connection with the laws of enunci- 
ation stated for teachers on pages 107 and 108. The diacriti- 
cal marks used in the school must always be added according 
to the laws of enunciation just noticed. 

Short Vowels. Hat, at, man, an, fat, ax, tack, hand, rang, 
sank, flash, mat, egg, peck, men, end, sent, kept, nest, left, 
dress, mesh, in, it, ink, splint, fist, with, kiss, sniff, of, on, ox, 
pond, moss, lost, up, rub, hunt, must, muff, hush. 

Long Vowels. Bake, tape, late, male, name, wave, mine, 
pipe, time, file, sole, rope, lobe, fume, mule, flute. 

Proper Diphthongs. Boil, toil, boy, toy, out, snout, brown, 
town. 

Doubled Consonayits. Muff, muffs, egg, eggs, bell, bells, hiss. 

Doubled Vowels. Book, food, nook, root, soot. 

Improper Diphthongs. Speak, break, ceiling, door, four, 
blow, day. 

Ambiguous Consonants. City, cake, gem, gate, goat, give, 
cuffs, silks, desks, tips, rasps, nets, masts, tubs, buds, logs, 
oils, teams, runs, ears, fox, except, exact, Xerxes ; cohesion, 
mansion, pleasure, tonsure ; of, offer ; fled, passed. 

Consonantal Digraphs. Church, laugh, thin, this, chaise, 
shall, sing. 

Silent Consonants. Comb, doubt ; pledge ; gnat ; ghost, 
Rhone, Hannah, honest ; stick, knot ; calf, calm, halve, talk ; 
kiln, hymn ; prompt, psalm, pneumonia ; watch, glisten, this- 
tle ; wrap, crawl. 

Silent Consonantal Digraphs. Yacht, light, bought. 

8 



114 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

Equivalent Consonants. Cat, kite, quick, stick, chrism ; 
sit, lace ; church, watch ; off, trough, pheasant ; joy, gill, sol- 
dier ; hallelujah, Julia, yes ; thank, song ; canon ; has, zeal ; 
social, nation, precious, chaise, shall ; sit, missed ; vane, of ; 
noxious ; flints, chintz. 

Intermediate Vowels. Again, around ; pare, fair ; ask, dance ; 
tall, law, war ; bar, park ; emit, the ; her ; pique, field ; son, 
word, nation ; could, would ; your, tour ; one, once ; for, 
morn ; omit, lesson ; full, put ; rude, ruin ; quay, conquest. 

Equivalent Vowels. Said, bet ; was, not ; warm, north ; 
dollar, father ; sere, spleen, sneak, field ; met, bury ; miss, 
been, business, women ; further, work ; her, fir, myrrh ; bite, 
fry, lye, high ; son, sun. 

Equivalent Vowel Digraphs. Hay, paid, break, they, feign, 
freight ; bare, fair, where, their, wear ; oh, toe, float, four, blow, 
floor, sew ; moon, moves, crude, drew ; tune, few, juice, due. 

Progress in Vocabulary. (1) At first, and for some 
months, the vocabulary of reading lessons should consist 
mostly of concrete monosyllables whose vowel is short, and 
the consonants simple ; as, hat, melt, pin, pond, rub. In the 
construction of sentences the teacher may introduce, though 
sparingly, necessary words that do not belong to this genus. 
These words must, of course, be taught arbitrarily. The end- 
ings s and es for plural nouns may be introduced. (2) Con- 
crete monosyllables whose radical vowel is long, and e the 
final letter, should be taken up after considerable work has 
been done on short vowel monosyllables. Dissyllables, proper 
diphthongs and doubled vowels, as well as doubled consonants, 
may be introduced at this stage. The names of the letters and 
spelling become appropriate at this point. Print, charts, and 
books, should be employed after the first half year. The first 
and second courses should together take about one year. (3) 
Then lessons on improper diphthongs, ambiguous consonants, 
silent consonants, consonantal digraphs, silent consonantal di- 



READING 115 

graphs, equivalent consonants, equivalent vowels and vowel 
digraplis, and intermediate vowels, should be gradually intro- 
duced. The teacher should not take up any new task until the 
pupil has arrived at the principle to be learned. If the pupil 
knows the principles of reading, especially those of pronun- 
ciation, by the time he has passed once through the fourth 
reader, the progress is amply sufficient. His emancipation 
from the teacher's supervision in that event will have been 
almost accomplished. (Eighth Principle of Instruction.) 

I. ELEMENTARY COURSE IN READING. 

It is important to know just what to do in teaching, and 
how to do it, and the reasons. The following outline and ex- 
position are therefore submitted to teachers of reading : 

The First Year in Reading-. 

1 . A suitable oral vocabulary to be built. 

2. Transition to visible words. 

3. Audible and visible analysis of representative words. 

Requisite teaching ability. 

4. Visible analysis and audible synthesis of analogous words. 

5. Inductive discovery of rules of pronunciation, etc. 

6. Words taught built into sentences as fast as practicable. 

Tlie teacher^ s preparation, and record of lessons. 

7. The function of diacritical marks, etc. 

8. Script lettei's and the black-board, capital letters. 

9. The alphabetic names. 

Building a Suitable Vocabulary. The mode of pro- 
cedure in building an oral vocabulary is determined by the 
nature of the step. (Second Principle of Instruction.) At 
the age of six years, the child knows many objects, qualities, 
and actions, but may not know their names in English. In 
that event, the words to be taught must be tauglit as names of 
objects, qualities, and actions, just as mother does it, i.e., by 
perceptive association. If, however, the English language is 



116 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

the child's mother-tongue, the appropriate object, quality, or 
action, is to be named by him at the teacher's request. The 
object, quality, or action, need not be present to the child's 
senses, if the teacher knows how to resort to the child's mem- 
ories and concepts. This is usually accomplished through 
pictures, gestures, questions, and other devices. 

Transition to "Visible "Words. The transition from oral 
to visible words can be made as soon as the pupil has learned 
the oral word, though it is thought best to defer it for some 
weeks. In case of those children whose mother-tongue is 
English, the transition is appropriate as soon as the child 
comes to school. The mode of procedure is perceptive asso- 
ciation. (Second Principle of Instruction.) In other words, 
the teacher gets the child to speak some name, and then writes 
it, thus presenting it to the pupil's eye. Objects and pictures 
add interest to the lesson, but are not essential to the tran- 
sition. 

Audible and "Visible Analysis of Representative "Words. 
In building the oral vocabulary of representative words, as 
well as in the transition to their visible forms, the pronuncia- 
tion of the pupil is to be imitative. The reasons are as follows : 
(] ) At this stage of childhood there is not a sufficient aptness 
of understanding to warrant deductive effijrts so difficult as the 
deductive use of principles of pronunciation. (Third Princi- 
ple of Education.) (2) At this stage of childhood there is 
sufficient imitative aptness and activity to do what is required. 
The requirement is therefore appropriate. (First Principle of 
Instruction.) 

In due time, however, the pupil must be emancipated in 
pronunciation, i.e., become able to prouounce new words un- 
aided. But the pupil cannot pronounce a new visible word 
by himself until he acquires adequate ability in visible analy- 
sis and simultaneous audible synthesis. In other words, the 
pupil can pronounce any new word, as confuse, by himself, 



READING 117 

as soon as he can decompose it into c o n-fu s e, and ^unite 
the sounds thus indicated into syllables, and these, if there 
be more than one, into the word- whole. The decomposing 
process is visible analysis ; the uniting process, audible syn- 
thesis. 

But visible analysis is impossible so long as the pupil does 
not know the elements of which the visible word, as rose, is 
composed. Therefore (Second Principle of Instruction) the 
analysis of audible words, simultaneous with visible analysis, 
must be taught until the pupil thoroughly knows all the vis- 
ible representatives of the forty or more elementary sounds in 
the English language. 

Requisite Teaching Ability, The teacher must, of course, 
know the true pronunciation of the words which he attempts 
to analyze. In other words, he must know the sounds of 
which a word is composed, the syllabication, and the accentu- 
ation. Moreover, he must know how to supervise and assist 
the vocalization of the pupil. It would not do, for example, 
to analyze the spoken word is as if it were spelled iss, or the 
word voyage, as if it were woyage. Indeed, the teacher needs 
a thorough course in Orthoepy and Elocution to accomplish 
artistic and satisfactory results in teaching reading. This 
training in Orthoepy and Elocution is imperative in selecting 
the analogous words to be associated with representatives of 
rules, and in supervising the pupil's arrival at the principles 
of pronunciation. 

Visible Analysis and Audible Synthesis of Analogous 
Words. As fast as the pupil learns visible representatives 
of elementary sounds, there should be added visible analysis 
of new words that consist of these visible representatives. This 
visible analysis renders audible synthesis possible, and requires 
it as the necessary complement in independent pronunciation. 
Audible synthesis, as indicated by the visible analysis, must 
therefore always be associated with the visible analysis of new 



118 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

words presented diacritically to the pupil's eye. When, for 
example, the new word arose is written on the blackboard, 
and then divided into a-r os e, the child must be required to 
unite the sounds thus represented into syllables, and these, if 
there be more than one, into the word -whole. There should 
be abundant and long-continued practice in conjoining visible 
analysis and audible synthesis. Indeed, it should be con- 
tinued for years as a means toward correct and pure articula- 
tion, etc. 

Inductive Discovery of Rules in Reading-. When the 
pupil can pronounce unaided a sufficient number of analogous 
words purposely associated in recitations, he must be made to 
see the law to which these words conform in pronunciation. 
The exceptions should be taught with special reference to the 
violated rule, and by special drill. The teacher should not 
attempt to teach many rules the first winter. Little by little 
the pupil will acquire the habit of looking for analogies and 
rules. After this inductive habit has come, the teacher's as- 
sistance will become less and less necessary. The principles 
of syllabication, accentuation, and elocution, are, of course, to 
be taught in the same way. 

"Words Taught Built into Sentences. The representa- 
tive words used in reading lessons, and the analogous words, 
as M^ell as the necessary arbitrary words, should be built into 
sentences. This should be done in all recitations and between 
recitations. Between recitations the sentences taught should 
be left on the black-board, and copied by the pupils. In due 
time the pupil should be urged to construct sentences of his 
own. This is what the child does with his oral vocabulary. 
It is as natural and interesting to a child to build words into 
sentences as it is to build play-houses. (Second Principle of 
Instruction.) 

The Teacher's Preparation and Record of Lessons. The 
teacher should build the requisite representative words, and 



BEADING 119 

analogous words as fast as necessary, as well as necessary arbi- 
trary words, into a graded series of sentences. The utmost 
care and wisdom is needed in this task. Any teacher who 
cannot do this work well is in so far not qualified to teach. 
The sentences should be recorded, and used in preparing for 
recitations. 

The Function of Diacritical Marks. If the English lan- 
guage were absolutely phonetic, i.e., if each elementary sound 
had its own representative, or letter, and each letter its own 
phonetic value, the graphic contrivances termed "diacritical 
marks" would be superfluous. Inasmuch as the English lan- 
guage is not strictly a phonetic language, diacritical marks are 
indispensable in the analysis of visible words. Until the pupil 
arrives at the reflective stage of intellectual development, the 
diacritical marks, and perhaps also the accent marks, should 
be used by the teacher and the pupil. This is especially im- 
portant at first. The symbols are to be gradually omitted by 
the teacher when he presents old words to the pupil's eye. In 
this case the pupil's associative memory is to be pressed into 
service, and with good reason ; for pronunciation must eventu- 
ally become mechanical, i.e., the pupil must learn to read with- 
out the aid of diacritical marks, and without thinking of rules 
of pronunciation. But the symbols are to be employed with 
all new words, whether presented on the black-board, or found 
on charts and in elementary readers. In due time, however, 
the pupil must be taught to refer to the dictionary. In other 
words, all graphic contrivances should be omitted from fifth 
readers, perhaps from fourth readers, and the pupil should 
rely on the dictionary. (Eighth Principle of Instruction.) 

Script Letters and the Black-Board. It is deemed best 
to employ script letters and the black-board for several months 
in reading lessons. (1) Writing takes less time, and is not so 
difficult for children. The printing that is necessary as an in- 
troduction to charts and books, is readily learned by associa- 



120 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

tion. (2) The black-board is more interesting to the learner 
than charts and books, because it makes movements the object 
of attention. It is with the black-board that the teacher can 
best show children how to write letters, words, and sentences. 
Indeed, the pupil that watches his teacher write these letters 
and words day after day, and then imitates them between reci- 
tations, on the black-board, slate, or tablet, will learn to write 
without much additional instruction. (First Principle of 
Instruction.) Teachers should, of course, be good writers. 

Capital Letters. Capital letters should be taught only 
as fast as needed, and by writing them side by side with the 
corresponding small letters, i.e., by association. Very little 
explanation will be needed. (First Principle of Instruction.) 

The Alphabetic Names. During the second half of the 
first year in reading, the names of the letters should be taught. 
Up to this time these names are of very little use, and might 
do much harm. As soon as ambiguous letters, i.e., letters 
with more than one phonetic value, become frequent, their 
names are a convenience in speaking of them. When long 
words, silent letters, and other complexities, become frequent, 
oral spelling, and therefore the names of the letters, should be 
introduced as appropriate supplements. In due time, the 
names of the alphabetic letters should be taught in their 
order, both backward and forward. This acquisition will be 
a convenience in consulting dictionaries, references, cyclo- 
paedias, etc. 

The only way to learn the alphabetic names is to associate 
the name of each letter with its form, and to persevere in this 
association until the committing is perfected. Only a few let- 
ters should be attempted at a time. It may be done in special 
recitations or in connection with exercises in reading. 

Between Recitations. Visible analysis, including syllabi- 
cation and accentuation, as well as sentence-building, should 
be required of pupils between recitations. Old words, or those 



BEADING 121 

presented to the pupil at the close of a recitation, and after 
special drill, are suitable for these purposes. The require- 
ment will impress recited lessons and pave the way for the 
next recitation. When, in due time, the elementary reader is 
put into the hands of the child, he should be required to write 
columns of words selected from his lesson according to special 
directions. 

Note. The method described is appropriately termed the 
" Science Method," from the fact that its requirements are ob- 
servation, induction, and deduction. It may also be called the 
" Psychological Method," from the fact that it is adapted to 
the natural requirements of the mind. (Tenth Principle of 
Instruction.) The distinctive features of the method are (1) 
the orthoepic choice of an oral vocabulary, and (2) the mode 
of discovering orthoepic and elocutionary principles. These 
features are in accordance with the principles of instruction, 
and constitute the special claims of the system. 

The "Word Method. The method of transition to visible 
words, is sometimes called the " Associative Method," from 
the nature of the process, and sometimes the " Word Method," 
from the fact that words rather than letters or sentences are 
first studied. Jacotot, a French philosopher and teacher 
(1770-1840), was among the first to use this method. The 
most prominent early advocate of the method in America was 
Professor Webb. For a time it was therefore called the Webb 
method. In England it is called the " Look and Say" method, 
or, the method of " Reading without Spelling." In itself the 
" Word Method" is insufficient. (1) It starts from nowhere 
in particular. (2) It develops no power in the pupil. (3) It 
aims at no definite results in orthoepy or elocution. 

The Alphabetic Method. The old " Alphabetic Method" 
is so evidently absurd that it should be forever discarded. By 
this method it was required of the pupil to name the letters 
of a word, and then to try to pronounce the word. This was 



122 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

simply impossible, because these names are not the elements 
of which the word is phonetically composed. By this method 
the child remained dependent too long on the teacher's super- 
vision and assistance in pronunciation. The absurdity of the 
method comes home to adults when the letters of some Greek 
word are named, and the effort is made to pronounce the word. 
Thus, if the reader knows the names of the Greek word Uyo<; 
to be respectively Lambda, Omicron, Gamma, Omicron, and 
Sigma, he cannot even begin to pronounce the word ; but if he 
knows the sounds of the letters to be respectively 1 o g-o s, he 
can pronounce the word at once. 

The Phonetic Method. The "Phonetic Method" that 
was advocated some years ago, is impracticable, because it re- 
quires the pupil to know about fourteen new letters in addition 
to our twenty-six, in order to avoid the diacritical contrivances. 
The transition to twenty-six letters and the diacritical marks 
is necessary after all, and is complicated rather than promoted 
by the introductory phonetic system. If, however, the English 
language were absolutely phonetic, this system would have 
some real merit. It is not likely that the method will ever 
be revived. 

The Pollard Method. The " Pollard Synthetic Method" 
consists of audible and visible synthesis. It begins with sounds, 
as a and m, prompting the pupil to find these sounds first in 
Nature and then to imitate them. It groups these sounds into 
"families," as at, am, ack, and "keys," as b,f, I, t. It em- 
ploys a story called the " Johnny Story" to interest the learner. 
It resorts to analogies, association, and imagination, as when 
the child is required to imitate what tlie lamb, rooster, dog, 
etc., say. It builds words, visible words, pronounces them, 
and then recognizes these uttered words as names of objects, 
qualities, or actions. It aims from the beginning at the child's 
emancipation in ]>ronunciation. It is called the "Pollard'' 
method after Mrs. Pollard, the author. 



READING 123 

The method claims the following merits : (1) " It gives cer- 
tainty and independence in the recognition of words. (2) It 
gives rational scope and aim to diacritical marks. (3) It is a 
complete system of vocal training. (4) It promotes distinct 
enunciation and perfect articulation. (5) By its simple and 
effective rules, it secures proper pronunciation. (6) It equips 
pupils for an intelligent use of the dictionary. (7) It provides 
for the child those mental operations which are most agreeable 
to him. (8) It makes good spellers by its constant use of all 
the letters in a word." Leading educators of our own and 
other States affirm that experiments prove these claims to be 
well founded. 

Several objections to the system deserve our attention. (1) 
The learner should be conducted from that which is known to 
that which is in logical junction with it. But the Pollard 
Method, beginning with "sounds" rather than with words, 
ignores the language acquisition of those children whose 
mother-tongue is the English language. Nevertheless, the 
Pollard Method overcomes the child's natural repugnance to 
abstractions by calling into service the child's imagination and 
his imitative powers. (2) Ideas precede names and signs. 
But the Pollard Method, reversing this order, builds words 
before it teaches their meaning. This violation is, however, 
effectively corrected by bringing the words thus built up into 
immediate connection with the ideas for which they stand. (3) 
The chief obstacle to the introduction of the Pollard Method is 
the fact that it requires trained teachers and special books, etc. 
In the long run this objection is convertible into a merit. 

It is too early to predict the ultimate general adoption of 
the Pollard Method. It has been tried in hundreds of towns 
and cities, and, wherever the teachers understood their busi- 
ness, the results were satisfactory. Indeed, the system has 
won to its side many prominent educators who at first opposed 
it. Whatever may come of her system, Mrs. Pollard's books 



124 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

are so suggestive and helpful that they should be in every 
teacher's library. 

The method advocated in the text is designed to meet the 
requirements of fundamental principles, without the loss of 
the meritorious features of the methods considered. 

II. INTERMEDIATE COURSE IN READING. 

A great deal of work in orthoepy and elementary elocution, 
remains to be done after the first year in reading. Presuma- 
bly the child has now mastered the vocabulary of an ordinary 
first reader, and has acquired the inductive habit of discover- 
ing principles of orthoepy and elocution in a miniature way, 
and perhaps he has also acquired the supplementary habit of 
pronouncing deductively within a very limited vocabulary. 
It is evident, however, that those hal^its must be strengthened, 
and that the complexities of orthoepy and elocution should be 
gradually mastered until the pupil's emancipation in reading 
has been accomj)lished. This course should extend over the 
second and third year, probably over the fourth, and is appro- 
priately termed the Intermediate Course, because it presup- 
poses an Elementary Course, and requires a Higher Course as 
a supplement. The Intermediate Course may be outlined as 
follows : 

The Intermediate Course in Reading. 

1. Audible and visible analysis of complex representative 
words. 

2. Visible analysis and audible synthesis of analogous words. 

3. Inductive discovery of orthoepic and elocfutionary princip)les. 

4. Langimge lessons. 

5. The attainment of fluency in elocution. 

6. Hpechd elocutiona^-y exer'cises. 

Articulation. 

Lisping. 

Stammering. 



READING 125 

7. The mental 2^hase of reading. 
Proper methods of work. 
Lessons graded in vocabulary and contents. 
Supplementary reading. 
Development of llteroA^y hahilH. 

Audible and Visible Analysis of Complex Representa- 
tive Words. There should be special drills on Improper 
Diphthongs, Ambiguous Consonants, Consonantal Digraphs, 
Silent Consonants, Equivalent Consonants, Intermediate Vow- 
els, Equivalent Vowels, and Equivalent Vowel Digraphs. 
(See " Suitable Vocabulary.") 

As in the case of words whose structure is simple, so in these 
complex words, there must be audible analysis simultaneous 
with visible analysis until the visible representatives become 
familiar representatives. The word move, for example, must 
be correctly pronounced, analyzed into its component sounds 
m 00 V, written on the black-board correctly, and analyzed into 
the visible representatives m o v e. The teacher should call 
especial attention to the fact that o is equivalent to oo, and 
that e is silent. 

Visible Analysis and Audible Synthesis of Analogous 
Words. The study of analogous words by visiljle analysis 
and simultaneous audible synthesis should follow the study of 
representative words by audible and simultaneous visible anal- 
ysis. The words reprove and imprrovement, for example, 
should be studied by visible analysis and audible synthesis 
after the word move has been studied by audible and visible 
analysis. 

Inductive Discovery of Orthoepic and Elocutionary 
Principles. Analogous words should be studied by conjoin- 
ing visible analysis and audible synthesis until the orthoepic 
principle becomes evident. It is in this inductive way, for 
example, that the rule of x Ls to be discovered and stated as 
follows : X is generally hard before an accented syllable begin- 



126 PKINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

ning with a vowel or silent h, but soft before accented sylla- 
bles beginning with a consonant ; as, exact, exhort, exclaim. 
The principles of elocution are to be discovered in the same 
way. Great pains should be taken to develop these principles 
of reading into practical rules. The teacher should not allow 
his pupils to forget what they have learned. (Seventh and 
Eighth Principles of Instruction.) Exceptions to rules must 
be more carefully studied in drills adapted to the purpose. 

Language Lessons. In the intermediate course of read- 
ing, pupils must be required to write columns of words selected 
from the lesson according to special directions, mark these 
words according to orthoepic rules, copy sentences, commit 
sentences, and construct original sentences. The usual re- 
quirements of language lessons are to be respected. The 
pupil, for example, should attend to capitals, commas, periods, 
spelling, penmanship, neatness, and system. 

The Attainment of Fluency in Elocution. It is not the 
function of common schools to develop specialists in elocution. 
But that fluency which consists of correct and rapid articula- 
tion, rapid recognition and ready pronunciation, together with 
expressive skill in emphasis, movement, pitch, force, and qual- 
ity of voice, are desirable attainments in any education. The 
pupils of our common schools should in due time and for 
various reasons attain to considerable ability in elocutionary 
fluency. 

Special Elocutionary Exercises. The following special 
phonic drills will be found useful. The diacritical marks 
used with the " key" letters are those of the Worcester Dic- 
tionary. 

Enunciation Drills. 1. ^, a, a, a, a, a, a, S., a(5), a(6), a(e) ; 
at, cellar, acute, ape, dare, fast, far, war, was, again, quay. 

2. 6, e, e(I), e, e(a), e, e ; rent, the, England, here, they, 
where, term. 

3. I, 1, i, i, i(y), i ; pin, police, infinite, girl, onion, kite. 



READING 127 

4. 6f 6, o(ti), p, 6, 6, o(u), o(wtt), o ; not, some, work, omit, 
roll, do, could, one, occur. 

5. tt, u, ii, u(6), u(i), ti, u, u, u ; up, upon, burn, bury, busy, 
push, truth, numerate, unite. 

6. y, y., y, y ', myth, chrysanthemum, myrrh, cry. 

7. ew(u), ew(u), ew(6), oo(li), 66, oo(6), oo(u), ot, 6y, ou, 
ou(6), 6w, ow(o) ; few, crew, sew, book, spool, floor, blood, oil, 
toy, proud, four, cow, flown. 

8. a, ai, ay, ^a, 6y, eig, eigh ; mate, paid, ray, break, whey, 
reign, eighth. 

9. are, air, ^re, eir, ear ; spare, stair, there, their, wear. 

10. a, e ; a rat, the cat : a(6), 6 ; said, head : a(5), 6 ; was, 
on : a, o ; swarm, north. 

11. e, ee, ea, ie; mete, screen, speak, fields: 6, u(6) ; fret, 
bury ; ii, o(ii) ; fur, world : er, ir, yr ; intersperse, firm, myrrh : 
iy u(i) ; fit, business. 

12. t, e(I), o(i), u, y ; bin, been, women, busy : i, y, ye, igh ; 
ivy, spry, lye, fight : i(y), y ,|_ spaniel, yell. 

13. 5, a(6) ; knot, what : O, 6, 6a, 6e, 6o, 6u, 5w, e(6)w, oh ; 
O, old, goat, toes, floor, four, blow, shew, oh. 

14. or, ar ; form, swarm : o, ii ; sons, funnel : o(wtt), wti ; 
one, wti : oo(u), o(fi), ti ; spook, should, full : 66, 6, u, ew(u) ; 
moon, prove, rule, strew : ofi, 6^ ; loud, bowing : 61, 6y ; foil, 
destroy. 

15. u, ue, lii, ew(u) ; tube, dues, juices, few. 

16. b, p, d, t, j, g, V, w, ch, j, ch, s, s, x, x, :?:, k, g; big, 
pick, dull, tin, jug, gill, voyage, winter, church, joke, choke, 
fits, sins, extort, exhort, example, kick, gold. 

17. €, k, q, ck, ch ; call, kid, quote, quick, chrism : 9, s, 2(9) ; 
cement, soon, chintz : f, gh(f ), ph(f ) ; fins, laugh, sphinx : j, 
g^ d( j) ; jug, gill, soldiers : i(y), j(y), y ; Indian, hallelujah, 
yonder : n(ng), ng ; think, strong : s, z ; is, zinc ; s(sh), t, c(sh), 
9h, sh ; sugar, faction, social, chaise, shine : f(v), v ; of, vows ; 
d(t), t ; decked, pit. 



128 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

18. "He talks earnestly. On either side is the ocean. 
She sought shelter. The railroad ran directly across the rapid 
river. With a thick thimble Theresa Thornton thrusts thirty- 
three thready through the thick cloth." 

19. Broth?, truths, moth§, triumphs, facts, asps, fifths, pre- 
cincts, filched, gulped, depth, parts, harps, steps, girl, learn, 
nymph, phial, loiter, rhythm, mug, gaiter, wrist, dagger, stick. 

20. The above exercises, and others selected from various 
sources, should be studied very carefully. The learner should 
speak very slowly at first, increasing his rate of utterance as 
he acquires ability. 

Lisping. Lisping is due to several causes. Among others 
the following causes are common : (1) Association with some 
one who lisps ; (2) Childish affectation ; and (3) Defects of the 
organs of speech. The causes must be removed if possible. 
When it is impossible to remove the causes, as in organic de- 
fects, the pupil must be trained to manage his organs of speech 
with cultivated tact. 

Stammering. Various causes lead to stammering. Among 
them are the following : (1) Exuberance of feeling ; (2) Hur- 
ried utterance ; and (3) Defects in the nervous system. If 
impulsiveness or heedlessness be the cause, the cure of these 
faults will be the cure of the stammering. If the trouble lies 
in the nervous system, hygienic attention may be the sufficient 
remedy. In all cases of stammering the pupil should be 
trained to self-control. In other words, he must learn to sub- 
ordinate his impulses, and to overcome his nervousness. The 
practical rule must be : Speak slowly. Tact and kindness 
will do much in these unfortunate cases. 

The Mental Phase of Reading. Reading in its ultimate 
sense presupposes and requires intelligence. The pupil must 
be taught to think and feel what he reads. In that event he 
becomes a treasury of wisdom, and an adept in expressing 
thoughtB and feelings when he reads to others. The develop- 



EEADDfG 129 

ment of intelligence in reading requires : (1) Proper Methods 
of Work ; (2) lue&soni Graded in Vocabularv and Contents ; 
(3) Sopplementarv Heading; and (4j The Development of 
Literary Habits. 

Proper Methods of Work. CSeventh Principle of Instruc- 
tion.) The teadier must insist on studv. The pupil must 
know the pronunciation and meaning of the words in the les- 
son, must read the lesson until he can do it rapidly and cor- 
rectly, and he must try to think and feel the lesson. In the 
recitation the teacher should ask many question^ llms stimu- 
lating previous study. He should also require the pupils to 
tell the story of the lesson, sometimes before and sometimes 
after the reading. He may even urge pupils to write the 
story of the lesson in their own words, betbre they come to 
recite. 

Le^tms Graded in Vocabulary and Contents. The lessons 
in reading, whether planned by the teadier, as vu his intro- 
ductory work, or foimd in readers, should be adapted to the 
stages of the pupil's mental development. (Third, Sixth, and 
Seventh Principles of Instruction.) The grading of lessons 
should therefore be perceptive, conceptive, and reflective. In 
odier words, the vocabulary and contents of reading lessons 
should be mostly perceptive at first, then mostly conceptive, 
and finally also reflective. 

SuppUmentary Reading. There should be supplementary 
readers in every school-room. At appropriate times it aboold 
be required of pupils to read at sight, or soon after sight, Bome 
paragraph or page that ranks in difficulty with that of his 
previous lessons. This requirement, being a variatuHi fincmi 
the nsnal text, will stimulate interest, and cultivate habhs of 
reading. Books on geography, travels, biography, history, 
physiology, etc., may also be nsed as supplementary reading. 
(Fourth Principle of InstmcticMi.) 

The Dexelopment of Uterary Habits. In due tune the 

9 



130 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

pupils of our common schools should be urged to read such 
English classics as are suited to their age and progress. The 
teacher should strive to cultivate true ideals in literary habits. 
It is to be regretted that so few of our boys and girls acquire 
the habit of reading good books. In order to induce and 
establish this habit there should be a library of suitable books 
in every school. This library should, at least in part, be col- 
lected by the efforts of the pupils, as directed by the teacher, 
in order to cultivate appreciation for books and literary equip- 
ments. If possible, every school room should be supplied 
with a good periodical and newspaper. 

III. IMPORTANCE OF READING. 

Reading, as everybody who thinks about it must see, is a 
most effective means of culture and instruction. 

Culture Value of Reading-. Reading is a stimulus to 
thought, and a help in the interpretation of the world in 
which we live. (See Rosenkranz.) It is through reading that 
we can think the thoughts of the " masters" after them, and 
that, through a train of corresponding feelings and purposes, 
we may live at least in part in their mental world. Thus it 
follows that reading becomes a mode of exercising the mind 
in all its possibilities. 

Instruction Value of Reading*. Reading is the key to a 
great deal of knowledge at which the mind without such 
means would not, and in many cases could not, arrive. The 
practical, aesthetic, moral, and religious importance of such 
knowledge, makes reading the subject jpar excellence in the 
acquisition of an education, and in the great commerce of ideas 
of the human race. 

Training of Teachers of Reading. In order to do ideal 
work in teaching reading, the teacher must evidently be a 
good reader in its physical and mental phases. A pedagogical 
knowledge of reading is equally important to success. 



WRITING 131 

CHAPTER IV. 

WEITING. 

The pedagogics of writing is concerned with two topics : 
(1) The Nature of Writing; and (2) Instruction in Writing. 

A. THE NATURE OF WAITING. 

In order to arrive at a thorough understanding of the sub- 
ject in hand it will obviously be necessary to study the follow- 
ing topics : (1) The Physical Act of Writing ; (2) The Psy- 
chology of Writing ; (3) The Structure of Script ; (4) Properties 
of Writing ; and (5) The History of Writing. 

The Physical Act of "Writing-. The physical act of 
writing presupposes appropriate positions of the body, and 
consists of various movements of the fingers, hand, and arm. 
(1) There is some room for choice as to the position of the 
body in writing ; we may assume the " front," " right," or 
" left" position at the desk. The sitting posture is generally 
preferred to the standing posture, the latter serving as a mode 
of relief. (2) The movements of the fingers, hand, and arm, 
are muscular movements of bone-levers on hinge-joints, wrist- 
joints, and ball-and-socket-joints. 

The Psychology of Writing". The learner becomes ac- 
quainted with the positions, movements, and characters, by 
observation; he discovers the general truths of writing by 
induction, and reduces them to rules of practice by deduction. 
The most important feature of writing is the subjection of the 
physical organism to the mind. The various positions and 
movements in writing require very strict attention at first. 
In time these movements become habits, and require only v- 
minimum of voluntary effort. 



132 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

The Structure of Script. The characters, or letters, of 
writing are composite structures consisting of simple and com- 
plex lines. 

Species of Letters. The script characters which are em- 
ployed to represent the elementary sounds of our language, are 
termed Letters. The two species of script letters in vogue are 
the small and the capital letters. Small letters are employed 
in the body of words, while capitals denote distinctions, as in 
proper names or head-lines. 

The Form- Elements of Script. Script letters are combina- 
tions of form-elements, i.e., combinations of straight lines, 
angles, and curves. (1) The form-elements of the various 
systems of script are comparatively few. Spencer, for exam- 
ple, employs only seven principles, the straight line ( | ), the 
right curve (— ^), the left curve (^— ), the loop {/), the direct 
oval ( 0), the reversed oval {q ), and the capital stem (o/)- The 
height, width, and parts, of every letter are definite quantities 
according to the system adopted. (2) The " down-stroke" of 
letters is probably the most important element of any system 
of script, since upon its direction depend, as statistics show, 
both legibility and rapidity in writing, as well as the physical 
welfare of the writer. In Spencer's slanting system the down- 
stroke meets the writing-line at an angle of 52 degrees, and 
determines the general slope of the letters. In the various 
vertical systems the down-stroke meets the writing-line at 
right angles, and determines the general character of the let- 
ters. The connecting lines are next in importance, since upon 
them, too, depend both legibility and rapidity in writing, as 
well as the beauty of the finished letters. In Spencer's system 
the connecting lines meet the writing-line at an angle of 30 
degrees, while in vertical writing the angle must be larger to 
add to the general effect of the vertical idea. The actual slope 
of connecting lines is not quite the same in all vertical sys- 
tems, either to shorten connective curves in the interest of 



WRITING 133 

rapidity, or to add to the beauty of the finished letters. The 
initial and the terminal strokes are also of importance in any 
system of writing, since economy of space and time as well as 
the beauty of the finished letters must depend on these strokes. 

Desirable Properties of Writing. '■'• Writing is a secon- 
dary power of speech, and they who cannot write are in part 
dumb." In other words, writing is a species of language. As 
a mode of language, writing should be legible, accurate, rapid, 
and beautiful, and the physical act should not impair the 
health of the writer. Right habits should, therefore, be devel- 
oped from the beginning. 

Legibility. " Scrawls that cannot be read may be compared 
to talking that cannot be understood ; and writing difiicult to 
decipher, to stammering speech." Legibility is also important 
to the health of the reader's eyes. It is accordingly the quality 
preeminent from first to last. 

Accuracy. All the form-elements required by the adopted 
system of writing should be present in perfection in script let- 
ters. Apart from the bad moral effect of carelessness in these 
respects, inaccurate letters are likely to be mistaken for others, 
so that inaccurate writing is more or less illegible. Imitative 
accuracy will do at first ; theoretic accuracy should follow. 

Rapidity. Beginners should write slowly, so that the hand 
may become the servant of the will. The moral development 
of the writer will be promoted by such exercises. The move- 
ments in writing should, however, become more and more 
rapid in the interests of economy, but always in subordination 
to the will until perfect habit develops. 

Beauty. Legibility, accuracy, and rapidity are requirements 
of utility. The union of the useful and beautiful is universally 
desirable. Taste for artistic penmanship develops into taste 
for art in general, and stimulates the finer nature of the writer. 

The Requirements of Hygiene. (1) The position of the body 
in writing, and the movements of the fingers, etc., should be 



134 PEINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

the very best. Right habits should be developed from the be- 
giuumg. (2) That system of writing which is best for the eyes 
of readers should^ all other things being equal, be adopted by 
our scliools. 

The History of "Writing-. There are two subjects to study 
in this connection : (1) The Successive Tendencies in Writing ; 
and (2) The Claims of the Tendencies. 

The Tendencies in Penmanship. The tendency to write up- 
right letters was the earliest tendency in the history of writing. 
" It was not until the beginning of the sixteenth century that 
the sloping or Italian style was invented by Aldus Manutius 
of Venice. It soon became a fashionable fad and spread raj)- 
idly over all Europe. Probably the best reason for this was 
that writing in those days was to a great extent in the hands 
of professional scribes, and, as the slanting style was peculiarly 
favorable to the development of the new art of flourishing, it 
soon supplanted the old vertical mode." " In the course of 
time, when education became the common possession of all, 
slanting writing retained its supremacy imchallenged. No 
attempts were made to return to vertical penmanship until a 
few years ago, when an investigation of the causes of curvature 
of the spine and imperfect vision so common in school-children 
was instituted in Germany, with the result that eminent medi- 
cal authorities attributed the greater part of the evil to the 
position of the body and eyes necessary in writing a slanting 
hand. At about the same time teachers began to awake to 
the fact that the writing of their schools was anything but 
satisfactory." " With the assurance from the medical profes- 
sion that slanting penmanship produces deformity and imj)er- 
fect vision, and from educational experts that vertical penman- 
ship is far superior to sloping, it would appear that vertical 
writing is to be the writing of the future. It has already 
been extensively introduced on the Continent and in England, 
and has recently aroused absorbing interest in this country." 



WRITING 135 

The Merits of Vertical Writing. The advantages of vertical 
writing are as follows : (1) It is better for the health of pupils. 
The required position is natural and easy, since the back must 
be straight and square, and both eyes must be exercised equally. 

(2) Vertical writing is more legible, as can be shown by a 
diagram of upright and slanting lines. (See Merrill's Verti- 
cal Penmanship.) This claim is confirmed by the fact that 
books are commonly printed not in Italic, but in plain, up- 
right letters. The fact that English civil-service examina- 
tions ask for upright writing is an additional proof. 

(3) Vertical writing is more rapid. There is less distance 
for the pen to travel in making vertical strokes than in making 
slanting strokes of the same height. The difference between 
the down-strokes of vertical penmanship and those of slant- 
ing penmanship is as great as that between the perpendicular 
and the hypothenuse of a right angled triangle. There is, 
therefore, a considerable gain of time in vertical writing. 
Telegraph receiving operators avail themselves of this advan- 
tage almost unconsciously. 

(4) Vertical writing is more economical. Its shorter down- 
strokes save time and paper. The greater legibility of verti- 
cal writing, as well as its greater adaptability to learners, must 
also be regarded as matters of economy. 

(5) Vertical writing is easier to teach and learn. The po- 
sitions of the body, hands, and eyes are perfectly natural to 
the child, and consequently do not have to be painfully incul- 
cated. It is unnatural for a child to write with slanting 
down-strokes. Hence it will cost both teacher and pupil 
many hours of needless labor to attain uniformity in these 
strokes. Statistics show that children have better success in 
the vertical efforts, and that this success is a constant stimulus 
to their efforts. 

The Merits of Slanting Writing. There are several things 
to be said in favor of the slanting system of writing : (1) The 



136 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

possibility of remarkable beauty belongs exclusively to slant- 
ing writing. The history of slanting penmanship is incontro- 
vertible evidence on this point. There is an irresistible charm 
in the gracful poise of the classical slant. The vertical letter 
is stiif in comparison. If the future history of penmanship 
is to be that of a fine art, as the rapid adoption of short-hand 
seems to indicate, the slanting system deserves a place in 
special training. 

(3) The transition of schools to the vertical system is diffi- 
cult. The amount of time and labor needed to break higher 
grade pupils into the new habit, is an important consideration. 
Then, too, teachers need sjjecial training in vertical penman- 
ship in order to do good work. These objections have, how- 
ever, been satisfactorily met in hundreds of schools, and the 
probability is that the change will rapidly become universal. 

B. INSTRUCTION IN WRITING. 

The study of the nature of writing suggests the following 
topics for consideration : (1) Courses of Writing; (2) Methods 
of Instruction ; and (3) The Importance of Writing. 

Courses of "Writing. In obedience to the law of the pupil's 
natural development, and in accordance with the demands of 
life, there should be three courses in writing : (1) The Ele- 
mentary Course ; (2) The Intermediate Course ; and (3) The 
Higher Course. The elementary course is designed to develop 
mechanical ability ; the intermediate course, to correct and per- 
fect practical ability by adding theory ; the higher course, to 
develop special tastes, or to fit for special vocations. (See 
Principles of Instruction.) The common school owes her 
pupils a training in the first two courses ; the higher course 
belongs to special schools, such as business colleges, etc. The 
elementary course should be covered in two or three years ; 
the intermediate course, in from four to eight years, the time to 
be determined by circumstances. The end in view in the ele- 



WRITING 137 

mentary course is imitative skill ; in the intermediate course 
theory ; and in the higher course excellence. The designs are 
in harmony with the stages of possibility in pupils as ascer- 
tained by experiments, and they are in accord with the needs 
of life. 

I. THE ELEMENTARY COURSE IN PENMANSHIP. 

The questions to be considered under this heading are two : 

(1) The Tasks of the Elementary Course, and (2) The Methods 
of Elementary Lessons. 

The Tasks of the Elementary Course. The first lessons 
in writing are to be given in connection with reading, spelling, 
language lessons, etc. (1) The pupil must be required to copy 
words. (2) There must be supplementary lessons on separate 
letters. (3) Right habits of position, movement, spacing, etc., 
must be developed from the beginning. 

The Methods of Elementary Lessons. In the elemen- 
tary exercises of penmanship, the pupil must be required to 
observe and copy. (1) The little words that are read in ele- 
mentary language lessons, should be correctly written on the 
board in sight of the pupils. The pupil should be required 
to observe what the teacher does, and then try to write the 
word on the slate. At first it may be necessary to guide the 
little hands, but they will soon learn to trace legible copies. 

(2) As soon as the pupils can write words legibly, lessons on 
letters should begin. The small letters should of course be 
taken up first, and in the order of their increasing diffi- 
culty. (See this order, pages 141 and 142.) The lessons on 
capital letters may begin before all the small letters have been 
taught, but also in their order of difficulty. The letter to be 
taught should be written several times on the board, larger at 
first and smaller afterwards, the pupils observing what the 
teacher does, and then copying the letters on their slate, or on 
the board. A great deal of such practice can be readily com- 



138 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

bined with reading lessons. Children should sometimes be 
requested to write on paper, but the pen and the copy-book are 
hardly appropriate before the third year of school. (3) Right 
habits of position, movement, spacing, slanting, etc., are best 
taught at first by example. In other words, the position, 
movement, etc., must be illustrated by the teacher and copied 
by the pupil. Failures are best corrected by kindly sugges- 
tion. The teacher must see to it that children do not write 
too fast, and that they do neat work. He should, however, be 
thoroughly judicious in pointing out mistakes and imperfec- 
tions, never losing his temper or hurting the feelings of pupils. 

II. THE INTERMEDIATE COURSE IN PENIHANSHIP. 

The Tasks of the Intermediate Course. The lessons of 
the intermediate course in penmanship should begin the third 
or fourth year of school, aud should combine theory and prac- 
tice. The following subjects should be mastered in their order : 
(1) Positions at Desk, (2) Holding the Pen, (3) Finger Move- 
ment, (4) Fore-arm Movement, (5) Combined Movement, (6) 
Whole-Arm Movement, (7) Lines, (8) The Form-Elements, 
(9) Small Letters, (10) Capital Letters, (11) Spacing, (12) 
Shading, and (13) Arabic Figures. 

The Methods of Intermediate Lessons. (1) In the in- 
termediate exercises of penmanship, the pupil needs practice 
paper, a copy-book suited to his grade, a good pen, good ink, 
and a suitable desk. (2) It is convenient, and at the same 
time effective, to teach a whole class at once. Two, or, in 
some cases, three classes are enough for any school. (3) In 
this course accuracy and beauty are the right ideals, and great 
effort should be put forth to develop taste for these ideals. (4) 
There should be a system of signals, and everything should be 
done in the most orderly way. The recitation may begin with 
(1) Position at Desk, (2) Arrange Books, (3) Find Copy and 
Adjust Arms, (4) Open Inkstands, (5) Take Pens. The reci- 



WRITING 139 

tation may close with (1) Wipe Pens, (2) Front Position, (3) 
Pass Pens, (4) Pass Books, (5) Close Inkstands. (See " The- 
ory of Spencerian Penmanship.") 

Position at Desk. (1) The position for writing should be a 
convenient one, allowing the easy action of the right arm 
and hand. In sitting at a desk or table there is little choice 
between what are known as the "Left-side," "Front," "Right- 
oblique," or " Right-side" positions. They are all practised 
by writers ; but it is well for the sake of order and uniformity 
in a class that all the pupils should observe the same position. 
Whichever method is adopted, those who do not wish to be- 
come hollow-chested or round-shouldered, should learn to sit 
easily upright, and keep the shoulders square. 

(2) The " Front" position is most appropriate in classes. 
Pupils should be required to "Sit directly facing the desk, 
near to it, without leaning against it, with the feet level on 
the floor, and the fore-arms resting lightly on the desk in front 
at right angles to each other. Let the right arm rest lightly 
on the muscles forward of the elbow — keep the wrist above 
the paper, and rest the hand lightly on the nails of the third 
and fourth fingers, which should touch the paper directly 
under the palm. Adjust the book so that the right arm will 
be at right angles to the lines on which you are to write. 
Hold the book in place with the fingers of the left hand." 

Holding the Pen. Pupils should be required to " Take the 
pen between the first and second fingers and the thumb, ob- 
serving, 1st, that it crosses the second finger on the corner of 
the nail ; 2d, that it crosses the fore-finger forward of the 
knuckles ; 3d, that the end of the thumb touches the holder 
opposite the lower joint of the fore-finger ; 4th, that the top 
of the holder points toward the right shoulder ; 5th, that the 
wrist is above the paper ; 6th, that the point of the pen comes 
squarely to the paper." 

Finger Movement. (1) The action of the first and second 



140 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

fingers and thumb, is termed the " Finger Movement" ; it is 
used chiefly in the upward and downward strokes. (2) Pupils 
should be required to make this movement deliberately, count- 
ing 1, 2, 1, 2, etc., or saying upward, downward, etc. 

Fore-arm Movement. (1) " The Fore-arm Movement con- 
sists in the action of the fore-arm upon its muscular rest near 
the elbow; the hand gliding on the nails of the third and 
fourth fingers. It may be employed in making strokes in any 
direction, but is especially adapted to carrying the pen right- 
ward, and leftward, across the paper, and is most efficient in 
combination with the Finger Movement." 

(2) Pupils should be required to practise this movement in 
combination with the finger movement until the complex pro- 
cess becomes almost automatic. The teacher must be able to 
show the pupil what to do, and should insist on right habit. 

Combined Ifovement (1) " The Combined Movement con- 
sists in the united action of the fore arm, hand, and fingers, 
the fore-arm acting on its muscular rest as a centre, and 
sliding the hand on the nails of the third and fourth fingers, 
while the first and second fingers and thumb extend and con- 
tract in forming upward and downward strokes." 

(2) " This movement answers the requirements of business 
better than any other : it combines the free untiring sweep 
of the fore- arm, witli the delicate shaping powers of the fingers, 
securing ease and accuracy." 

(3) The teacher should carefully study this movement as 
explained in special text-books, in order that he may under- 
stand what he tries to teach. He should illustrate the move- 
ment again and again, until all in the class can make the 
movement. 

Whole-arm Movement. (1) " The Whole-arm Movement 
consists in the use of the whole arm from the shoulder, the 
elbow being raised slightly from the desk, and the hand 
sliding on the nails of the third and fourth fingers." 



WRITING 141 

(2) "The capitals (^ ^ ^, O^^ etc., may be traced 
with the whole-arm movement, and the strokes regulated by 
counting, as indicated by figures in copy-books. This move- 
ment is mainly used for striking large capitals. Its practice is 
highly beneficial, as it brings into free action all the muscles 
from shoulder to fingers." 

Form Lessons. Preparatory to lessons on the structure of 
the various letters, there should be special lessons on lines, 
angles, etc. (1) Pupils should be required to make and de- 
scribe a line, a straight line, a curve line, a right curve, a left 
curve, a horizontal line, a vertical line, a slanting or oblique 
line, and parallel lines. 

(2) Pupils in writing must be taught what an angle is, and 
how to measure it in degrees of a circle. Teachers of slant- 
ing penmanship must make their classes familiar with the 
angle of 52 degrees, or Spencer's Main Slant, and with the 
angle of 30 degrees, or Spencer's Connective Slant. Teach- 
ers of vertical penmanship must see to it that the pupils know 
the right angle. 

(3) The teacher must take pains to show the pupils how to 
combine strokes in forming letters ; how to make the " short 
turn," the " oval turn," the " loop," the " angular turn," the 
" direct oval," the " reversed oval," etc. 

Fo7^m Elements. The pupil of any system must be taught to 
make and describe the constituent parts of letters, and to ana- 
lyze letters, small and capital, into these elements. 

The Small Letters. The small letters should be taken up in 
the following order : (1) The thirteen " short" letters, namely, 

/, nf^ -u^, ^, ^^, -v-, <z:, C-, a, e, c, 't, d. 

(2) The four " semi-extended" (two spaces) letters, namely, 
/, (/, d, a. (3) The nine " extended," or loop letters (three 

spaces), namely, J, J, /, /,j^, ^, jf, p jf. 



142 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

These letters should be studied, practised, and reviewed, 
until each one becomes perfect. 

The Capital Letters. The capital letters should be taken 
up in the following order : (1) The four " Fifth Principle" 

letters, namely, ^, &, 0, ^. (2) The nine "Sixth Prin- 
ciple" letters, namely, (^, QtM, jt^ (^^ Q{. (^, cJ,J. 
(3) The thirteen " Seventh Principle" letters, namely, (-;;;:^ (^ 

a4.S:<^,GK^, j2^,-ef, ^ j£, &, g#: <^ 

These letters, too, must be studied, practised, and reviewed 
until they are mastered. 

Spacing. The teacher must see to it as much as possible 
that the space between letters, words, and sentences, is under- 
stood and respected by pupils. The teacher is referred to the 
copy-book explanations. 

Shading. Beginners in penmanship should not be taught 
"shading." When pupils have acquired artistic skill in 
writing letters without shading, it is time enough to begin 
lessons on that subject. The five species of shading as seen in 
the letters /, d, ^, fj and (y^ should of course in due time 
be taught. 

Arabic Figures. Lessons on the Arabic figures 

/, ^, 3, 4, 6, 6, /, ^, ^, 0, 

should be given in connection with the small letters, and accu- 
racy as well as neatness should be developed into habits. 

III. HIGHER COURSES IN PENMANSHIP. 
Inasmuch as it is not the duty of the common school to 
offer higher, or special, courses in penmanship, the details of 
instruction in such courses need not be considered in this 
treatise. The special courses in penmanship offered in special 
schools are as follows : (1) Business Penmanship ; (2) Ladies' 



WRITING 143 

Penmanship ; and (3) Ornamental Penmanship. The special 
requirements of business, etiquette, and decorative art, deter- 
mine the tasks and methods of such courses. (See the Ninth 
Principle of Instruction.) 

IV. THE IMPORTANCE OF PENMANSHIP. 

The unsightly, hurried scrawls that are so common in all 
species of writing, are greatly to be deplored. Such writing is 
to be deplored because : (1) The discipline of penmanship has 
a moral and practical radius, and (2) Artistic penmanship is a 
desirable instrument in business and social papers. 

The Discipline of Penmanship. The habits and tastes 
cultivated in the efforts to master penmanship, assert them- 
selves as habits and tastes in the moral and practical life of 
pupils. In other words, the habits of self-control, attention, 
accuracy, and artistic finish, which pupils must cultivate in 
order to master penmanship, are likely to become their habits 
and tastes in all activities. 

The Desirability of Artistic Penmanship. Except in 
cases of deliberate acting, most persons photograph their ordi- 
nary character in their handwriting. This fact has important 
consequences. (1) Employers look for self-poise, energy, 
taste, and manliness, in their employees. These characteris- 
tics, and their opposites, as just pointed out, are often de- 
tected in the letters of applicants for positions, and the em- 
ployer makes up his mind accordingly. School directors, for 
example, may not themselves be able to write well, but many 
of them know how important it is that the teacher of their 
children should write a good hand, and, all other things being 
equal, they prefer the good penman. 

(2) What is true of business intercourse is equally true of 
written social intercourse. We think better of our corre- 
spondents when they write a legible and artistic hand. This 
preference seems to rest on the belief, though it may never 



144 TRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

have been put in so many words, that our friends are likely 
to resemble their handwriting in other respects and in their 
relations to us. 

The Requisite Training for Teachers of Penmanship. 
It is obviously the duty of the common school to cultivate 
penmanship both for its disciplinary and its practical worth. 
Teachers have no moral rigiit to neglect either their own hand- 
writing or that of their pupils. Tlie consequences of such 
neglect are too difficult to correct, and too far-reaching in the 
pupil's career. It is requisite, therefore, that teachers under- 
stand (1) The theory of penmanship, and (2) The theory of 
teaching penmanship. In addition to such understanding, it 
is necessary that teachers have artistic ability in penmanship. 
Indeed, a knowledge of higher courses in penmanship, and 
training in eacli of these courses, so far as possible, develops 
an appreciation for the art of penmanship, and leads to an 
ability in it, that fit teachers to work from better standpoints 
and to much better advantage. Tlie Normal Schools espe- 
cially owe it to tlie jniblic schools to send out teachers that are 
able to write and to teach writing. 



SPELLING 145 



CHAPTER V. 

SPELLING. 

The pedagogics of spelling is concerned with (1) The 
Nature of Spelling, and (2) Instruction in Spelling. 

A. THE NATURE OP SPELLING. 

It will serve our purpose to study (1) The History of Eng- 
lish Orthography, (2) The Physical Structure of English Words, 
and (3) The Psychology of Sj)elling. 

The History of English Orthography. Among the 
things that have shaped our orthography are (1) The Ori- 
gin of the Alphabet, (2) The Norman Conquest of Eng- 
land, (3) The Practice of Authors and Copyists, (4) The 
Invention of Printing, and (5) The Publication of English 
Dictionaries. 

Origin of the Alphabet. " Before or during the rule of the 
Hyksos in Egypt, the Phoenician settlers in the Delta borrowed 
from tlie Egyptians twenty-two hieratic characters, which they 
passed on to their Asiatic kinsmen. These characters re- 
ceived new names, and became the Phoenician alphabet. Now, 
wherever the Phoenicians went, they carried this alphabet as 
' one of their exports.' " (See " Current Literature," March, 
1897, for another interesting account of the origin of the 
alphabet.) " It was through the Phoenicians, probably, that the 
Greeks received it ; the Greeks passed it on to the Romans, 
and the Romans gave it to the German peoples. In this way 
did our alphabet come to us from Old Egypt." In this his- 
torical process some of the original characters were dropped, 
the phonetic value of others was greatly changed, and some 

10 



146 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

new letters were introduced. Thus it came that some letters 
represent more than one sound, and that the same sounds 
often have more than one alphabetic representative. 

The Norman Conquest of England. The Roman mission- 
aries were the first to reduce the Anglo-Saxon language to 
writing. "They used the Roman letters, in nearly their 
Roman value, and added new characters for the sound of a in 
fat, th in thdr (dh), th in thine, and w." In the fusion of Nor- 
mans and Saxons, after the Norman Conquest, neither party 
could pronounce the words of the other party correctly, and, 
in spelling these mispronunciations, they introduced many 
lamentable irregularities. 

The Practice of Authors and Copyists. Before the invention 
of printing, authors spelled words very much as the mood of 
the moment dictated. There was no authorized orthography 
for any word. Thus it happened that words were spelled 
differently l)y different authors, and that the same author 
spelled a word in more than one way. This was true even 
of proper names, such as Leicester, Villers, Mainwaring, etc. 
Lower states that the word Mainwaring was spelled in one 
hundred and thirty-one different ways. To make the matter 
worse, the scribes that multiplied manuscripts, were careless 
in spelling. There were some authors, it is true, who tried to 
prevent these evils and to correct them. " The spelling of the 
Ormulum, which was written in the thirteenth century, though 
strange and cumbrous, is remarkable for its regularity ; and 
the author urges his copyists to follow his orthography with 
the utmost exactness. Chaucer, also, more than a century 
later, carefully revised and corrected his own works ; and he 
enjoined upon his scribe to ' write more trew' that which was 
entrusted to him, saying that he was obliged ' it to correct and 
eke to rubbe and scrape,' because of the negligence and haste 
with which it had been copied." The orthography of Shake- 
speare's times, though so much later than that of Chaucer, was 



SPELLING 147. 

far from settled ; even the name of the great poet was written 
more than thirty different ways. 

The Invention of Printing. When, about the middle of the 
fifteenth century, printing by means of movable types, was in- 
vented, the wretched spelling of authors unfortunately became 
a somewhat fixed orthography. To make the matter worse, 
printers often spelled words as prompted by convenience of 
space, now adding a letter, now omitting it, to suit the partic- 
ular case. 

The Publication of Didionaiies. At last the era of lexicog- 
raphers was ushered in. The most distressing irregularities 
of spelling began to disappear, and conformity to orthographic 
principles took their place. Of course, it was impossible to re- 
duce chaos to order at once, but Dr. Johnson's celebrated dic- 
tionary, published in 1755, settled usage definitely in favor of 
some one of the numerous forms in which words were written, 
and thus removed the cause of confusion. In other words, 
Johnson's dictionary became a standard of English orthog- 
raphy. The great lexicographers, Noah Webster and Wor- 
cester, followed in 1828. They introduced orthographic 
changes that met almost universal approval. First, they 
restored primitive spellings in order to reveal etymological 
affinities, and second, they reduced as much as possible the 
number of anomalies and special cases. Notwithstanding the 
improvements made by Johnson, Webster, Worcester, and 
other lexicographers, English orthography continues to dis- 
tress those who must use it. 

Spelling- Reforms. Many attempts have been made to in- 
troduce a system of phonetic spelling, i.e., a system in which 
each elementary sound of a word is represented by its own 
alphabetic sign. Among the first to attempt a phonetic sys- 
tem was Sir Thomas Smith (1568), Secretary of State to 
Queen Elizabeth. Eminent scholars in the times of Charles I. 
introduced orthographic changes, and tried to popularize pho- 



148 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

netic spelling ; but, inasmuch as these efforts did not rest on 
settled principles, the effects were not permanent. In modern 
times, Dr. Franklin invented a phonetic system, but it was 
imperfect, and he scarcely used it himself except in a brief 
correspondence with a friend. Among recent attempts are 
those of A. J. Ellis, I. Pittman, E. Jones, and A. M. Bell. 
The system of Mr. Bell has been used in scientific treatises, 
but seems not to be gaining any permanent hold. Many lead- 
ing philologists of England and America are advocates of re- 
form in orthography. Dr. March, Professors Whitney and 
Haldeman, of America, and Max Miiller, Ellis, and Jones, of 
England, are some of the foremost advocates of spelling re- 
form. The Funk & Wagnalls " Scientific Alphabet" prob- 
ably indicates and paves the way for the most practicable re- 
form in spelling. By means of a clever diacritical system and 
two additional letters, our present alphabet becomes the means 
of an almost perfect phonetic orthography. 

Such a reform is certainly desirable. It will save time and 
labor in schools ; it Mall save time, labor, and expense, in 
printing. Moreover, the proposed changes in orthography 
are not so violent as to seal the volumes of the old-style orthog- 
raphy. 

Physical Structure of English Words. A language in 
which each elementary sound is represented to the eye by a 
special letter, is termed Phonetic. English orthography, as 
we have seen, is very irregular. " This irregularity consists 
in the use of silent letters, and in the use of different letters 
and combinations to represent the same sound. Many letters 
are pronounced in several different ways, while the letters or 
combinations of letters for a single sound, in some cases 
amount to scores. Many words of no more tlian two sylla- 
bles may be spelled in several thousand different ways, by the 
use of combinations actually employed in other words of the 
•language. The word scissors, it is computed by Ellis, may be 



SPELLING 149 

thus written in nearly six thousand different ways. Indeed, 
it may be truly said that we possess the worst alphabetic spell- 
ing in the world. English orthography is ' the opprobrium 
of English scholarship' ; it is the greatest hindrance to educa- 
tion and to the spread of our language." And yet (see page 
151) "over nine-tenths of our words can be classified; that 
is, the sounds of the letters can be determined by their rela- 
tion to others in the word." 

The Psychology of Spelling-. The physical structure of 
words determines the necessary mental acts in spelling. 

Oral Spelling. (1) The orthography of many words must 
be learned, as other " facts" are learned, by observation, i.e., 
by the use of judgment in connection with the senses. Atten- 
tion makes any word, however irregular it may be, a possession 
of memory. Imagination is a strong reinforcement of memory 
both in learning and using the letters of a word. (2) The 
"rules" of spell hig (see page 151) must be learned by induc- 
tion, and (3) used by deduction. 

Written Spelling. The spelling of a written word may, of 
course, be learned " by ear" alone, provided one has already 
learned the alphabetic letters, for then the imagination will 
furnish a sight-substitute ; but commonly the eye is the most 
effective means. The most effective way of learning the or- 
thography of a word is to write the word, thus reinforcing 
sight by muscular sensation. This combination in learning to 
spell a word will generally insure its correct use in composi- 
tion. 

B. INSTRUCTION IN SPELLING-. 

The topics to be considered under the head of " Instruction 
in Spelling," are as follows : (1) The Preparation of a Spelling 
Lesson ; (2) The Recitation of a Spelling Lesson ; (3) Supple- 
mentary Devices in Spelling ; (4) Relative Merits of Written 
and Oral Spelling ; (5) Principles of Instruction ; (6) Course 
of Lessons ; and (7) The Importance of Spelling. 



150 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

I. THE PREPARATION OF A SPELLING LESSON. 

That which is to be learned in this case necessitates associa- 
tive memory reinforced by rules as much as the nature of the 
subject admits. (See the Sixth and Tenth Principles of In- 
struction.) Associative memory as a process begins in obser- 
vation. Hence it follows that in order to master words in 
spelling the pupil's tasks are three : (1) Observation ; (2) Rec- 
oUective Practice ; and (3) The Discovery and Use of Rules. 

Observation. Perfect observation is indispensable to true 
associations. Persistent associations, i.e., abiding memories, are 
assured by multiplying association-tracks in observing that 
which is to be remembered. (See Summation of Stimuli, page 
25.) Thus we see that pupils should study a word not only 
with the eye, but also with the hand, ear, and voice. That is 
to say, the pupil should observe the spelling of a word (1) by 
looking at it critically, regarding its letters, syllables, and the 
word as a picture- whole, (2) writing it, (3) comparing it with 
the word copied, (4) naming the letters in their order until it 
becomes an easy and accurate process, (5) pronouncing the 
syllables successively and as a whole. The teacher must make 
sure that pupils acquire the habit of thus observing words. 
The black-board and slates, or tablets, should be used. 

Recollective Practice. In order to assure persistent asso- 
ciations, the learner dare not be content with the observation 
just described. He must repeatedly write the words which he 
has studied, name the letters of the word of which he thinks, or 
spell it orally at some one else's dictation, comparing the re- 
sults to see if the attempted associations be true. This work 
dare not be neglected except at the risk of losing what was 
gained only by hard work at iirst. (See Second Principle of 
Culture.) 

The teacher must see to it that pupils get this practice. 

The Discovery and Use of Rules. Observation and recol- 



SPELLING 151 

lective practice are necessities especially because of the irregu- 
larities of orthography. But, as indicated in the beginning 
of this chapter, there are conformities to law in English or- 
thography, which, though they seem " few and far between" 
to the thoughtless, can be discovered and utilized in learning 
to spell. Indeed, memory finds a most grateful reinforce- 
ment in more than a few rules, or laws, of spelling. Among 
the most serviceable rules, though of course there are excep- 
tions, are the following : 

1. Final e is dropped before a suffix that begins with a 
vowel ; as, write, writing. 

2. Final e is retained before a suffix that begins with a con- 
sonant ; as, state, statement. Exception,. JwcZg'men^. 

3. Final y preceded by a consonant is changed to i before a 
suffix that does not begin with i ; as, lady, ladies. 

4. Final y preceded by a vowel sound is retained before all 
suffixes ; as, joy, joyous, enjoyment, chimney, chimneys. 

5. After a single vowel, the final consonant of any word 
accented on the final syllable, is doubled before a suffix that 
begins with a vowel ; as, control, controlled, Jlit, flitting. 

6. After a single vowel, the final consonant of any word 
not accented on the final syllable, is not doubled before a suf- 
fix that begins with a vowel ; as, benefit, benefited. 

7. After single vowels, final/ and I of monosyllables are 
generally doubled ; as, bell, staff. 

8. After diphthongs, or more than a single vowel, the final 
consonant is never doubled ; as, reveal, revealing. 

9. Words relating to matter end in ceous, and others end in 
clous ; as, ci'etaceous, ferocious. 

10. In such words as conceive and receipt, c is generally fol- 
lowed by el, and other letters of the alphabet by ie ; as, belief, 
retrieve. 

There is no sufficient reason why pupils should not be re- 
.quired to look for such rules and to justify their spelling by 



152 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

reference to these rules when they apply to the case in hand. 
For a full discussion of such rules see Worcester's Unabridged 
Dictionary. 

II. THE RECITATION OF A SPELLING LESSON. 
What the requirements of a recitation in spelling may be, 
depends very much on the means to be used in reciting. When 
the words are to be written the necessities are very different 
from those of an oral recitation, whether it be alphabetic or 
phonetic. It seems most convenient to consider written spell- 
ing first. 

a. WRITTEN SPELLING. 

The points to be considered are as follows : (1) Prelimina- 
ries ; (2) Giving out the Words ; (3) Spelling the Words ; (4) 
Corrections ; (5) Assignment of Lessons ; and (6) The Mean- 
ing of Words in Spelling Lessons. 

Preliminaries. The words to be spelled should not be 
given out before the class is properly seated and supplied with 
the most desirable writing materials, or before the class has 
passed to the black-board and taken the most suitable places 
according to thoughtful directions on the part of the teacher. 
The most suitable writing materials for spelling classes are 
prepared blank books, together with pen and ink. On passing 
to the board, if that be the mode of recitation, the pupils 
should be re(][uired to prepare the board, i.e., to erase what- 
ever may have to be erased, to space the board by means of 
vertical lines, and to write their names neatly near the top 
toward the right upper corner of thejr respective spaces. 
Whether seated or standing, all members should be required 
to maintain a natural and graceful posture. No disturbing 
conduct should be tolerated, and absolute attentiveness should 
be developed in all })arties about to engage in the recitation. 

Giving Out the Words. When everybody is ready, — and 
that should be as soon as possible, — the words should be pro- 



SPELLING 153 

nounced in such order as the teacher thinks best. The words 
should, of course, be pronounced distinctly and correctly, but 
only once, except for good reasons. For obvious reasons it is 
generally better that the teacher, rather than a pupil, gives out 
the words. As soon as a word has been written, some pupil 
ought to be requested to use it in an illustrative sentence, or 
to tell in his own way what the word means. It is often good 
for the pupil's development to associate the meaning of words 
with the spelling. The teacher should have a stock of illus- 
trations on hand for use in every recitation. 

Spelling- the Words. (1) As suggested, prepared blank- 
books, rather than slates, should be used in written sj)elling. 
As soon as pupils are able to do so, they should be required to 
write the words with pen and ink. This method effectually 
prevents erasures and " second trials," first steps to indecision 
and dishonesty, two serious habits to which human nature is so 
prone. (2) To develop the habit of capitalization and punctua- 
tion, frequent dictation lessons should be conjoined with the 
regular spelling lists. In these lessons the teacher frames the 
words of the list into sentences. He reads these sentences in 
parts, if necessary, or as a whole, when possible, and requires 
the pupils to write them correctly. (3) In lists, or columns, 
of written words, only proper names require capitals. (4) 
The pupils should frequently be required to write the words 
in separate syllables, the separation being denoted by spaces, 
rather than by hyphens. This device reserves the hyphen for 
its more distinctive uses in compound words and at the end of 
a line of writing. (5) With younger pupils it is well to use 
slate and pencil at first, and paper and pencil afterwards, until 
they may be trusted with pen and ink. The words should be 
written in columns and numbered. (6) The black-board is 
often better than either slate or paper. It is especially useful 
when words are to be spelled in separate syllables. A spelling 
lesson on the black-board is sometimes an agreeable variation 



154 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

from the other modes of written spelling. The words should 
be written in columns and numbered. 

Corrections. At a signal from the teacher, the pupils may 
exchange blank-books at the seat, or places at the board, care 
being taken to prevent cheating. The pupils may also be 
allowed to correct their own lists, in order to develop moral 
responsibility. The right of appeal to the teacher must be 
allowed when pupils do not correct their own lists, and the 
teacher should frequently inspect the corrected lists to make 
sure of his pupils. In the case of younger pupils such in- 
spection must obviously be most frequent. Corrections may 
be indicated by crosses, figures, or any other good device upon 
which the teacher may determine. At the close of every regu- 
lar recitation in spelling, the misspelled words should be re- 
corded in a book kept for that purpose. If prepared blank- 
books are used by the class, the words may be correctly written 
right after the incorrect spelling. This is probably the best 
way ; it requires the pupil to compare words, and saves the 
teacher the trouble of constant inspection. 

Assignment of Lessons. At the close of the recitation, 
if the pupils are young, the list of words for the next lesson 
ought to be pronounced. The pupils should have the first 
chance to pronounce the words of the prospective lesson. In 
case of failure, the teacher must come to the pupil's rescue. 
He may simply pronounce the difficult word, and require the 
pupils to imitate his pronunciations. But the better way is to 
resort to phonic drill in the case of difficult words. (See 
chapter on Reading.) Mischief must come from any neglect 
on the part of the teacher to see to these pre-pronunciatious. 

The Meaning of Words in Spelling Lessons. (See 
under Oral Spelling.) 



SPELLING 155 

h. ORAL SPELLING. 

The points to be considered are as follows : (1) Prelimi- 
naries ; (2) Giving out the Words ; (3) Spelling the Words ; 
(4) Assignment of Lessons ; and (5) The Meaning of Words. 

Preliminaries. If the method of " trapping" is not to be 
used, the pupils of the oral spelling class may be either seated 
or standing. In either case, they should be required to assume 
a healthful and orderly posture. It is thought best, however, 
to require the class to stand rather than to sit ; this posture is 
a physical relief to pupils, and prepares them to sit still when 
they return to their respective seats. Then, too, if the trap- 
ping system is used, the standing posture is obviously more 
appropriate. 

Giving" Out the "Words. (1) The trapping system of 
course requires that the words be passed from the upper to the 
lower end of the class in regular order. When trapping is not 
allowed, the words may be assigned to any pupil at pleasure. 
The former method is advisable as a stimulus. (2) The words 
should not be given out in any order which might tempt the 
pupils to commit it. If this caution is not observed, pupils 
are likely to prepare only those words which they expect to 
get in their turn. (3) In giving out the words of a spelling 
lesson, the teacher should not, except for good reasons, pro- 
nounce a word more than once. If he falls into the habit of 
pronouncing the words oftener than once, the pupils will ex- 
pect him to do so. In that event, they will become habitu- 
ally inattentive, thus trying the teacher's patience, wasting 
valuable time, and fitting themselves for failures in later 
years. (4) There are various methods of passing from word 
to word in assigning them to a class, (a) The same word may 
be assigned by nod of the head, or other appropriate signal, to 
more than one pupil, just as if it had been misspelled. This 
method develops attentiveness and certainty as to the spelling 



156 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

of a word, (b) Whenever a word is misspelled, the next word 
may be assigned. The pupil to whom it is assigned is ex- 
pected to spell the word that was missed rather than the word 
after it. If the pupil fails to do this, the teacher gives out a 
new word, and keeps on giving out new words until some one 
spells the word that was first missed. The pupil that spells 
this word, takes the place of the pupil that missed it, or, if it 
has passed the "head" of the class, he "goes up head." This 
is possibly the best method. It develops the greatest atten- 
tion, and stimulates to thorough preparation of the lesson. 
Both methods, (a) and (6), may be used in every recitation. 
The variation is very stimulating. (5) The teacher should 
not allow himself to fall into the habit of saying " right," 
" wrong," " next," etc. This habit is not only ludicrous, but 
cultivates an undesirable dependence of the pupils on the 
teacher. (6) Sometimes false sympathy prompts teachers to 
suggest the spelling of a word by pronouncing it in such a 
way as to name the letters. Thus, teachers are sometimes 
tempted to say orator for orator, infinite for infinite. This is 
evidently wrong. If the pupil cannot spell a word when it is 
pronounced as it would be in good speaking or reading, the 
pupil does not know the word, and should fail. The ability 
to pronounce words as they should be pronounced is obviously 
indispensable in teaching spelling. 

Spelling- the Words. (1) In the oral spelling class, the 
pupil sliould be i-equircd to pronounce the assigned word before 
he attemj^ts to spell it. This precaution assures both teacher 
and pupil that tlie word was understood, and thus avoids dis- 
putes, as well as other evils. (2) There are three possible 
things to do aftx»r the pupil's promuiciation of a word : (a) 
The pupil may name the letters of each syllal)le in order, pro- 
nouncing each syllable in its order, but only once, and the 
word as a whole at last. (/>) The pupil may name the letters 
as before, pronouncing each syllable in its order, and then 



SPELLING 1 57 

again in its proper connection witli all the syllables that pre- 
cede, thus pronouncing the last syllabic twice in all, the second 
last syllable thrice, etc. Illustration : Pdrdgrtiph ; j), a, r 
{p(ir), d {(l),ptird, (/, r, a, p, h {grdph), pdrdgr&ph. (c) The 
pupil may name the letters as before, pausing at the end of 
each syllable, and pronouncing the word as a whole, thus pro- 
nouncing each syllable only once. (3) The first method (a) is 
probably proper for younger pupils as a drill in j)ronouncing. 
The second method may be even better, so long as the words 
to be spelled are not long polysyllables. In classes that are 
ready for polysyllables, the third method is less awkward, 
saves time, and is sufficiently suggestive of the syllables tliat 
make up the word. Indeed, it may be questioned whether 
the first two methods accomplish that which is commonly 
claimed for them. It seems far better to teach the pronuncia- 
tion of words by phonic drills. This procedure reserves alpha- 
betic spelling to its legitimate sphere, i.e., naming the ortho- 
graphic characters of a word. 

Assignment of Spelling Lessons. (See under Written 
Spelling.) 

The Meaning of "Words in Spelling Lessons. (1) In 
the spelling lessons that accompany reading lessons, as well as 
in those incidental spelling tests that belong to all lessons, 
" meanings" should, of course, be taught with spelling. This 
is evidently advisable, but in the interests of tlie lessons to 
which the spelling is supplementary, rather than in the interest 
of spelling as spelling. On grounds of convenience, these 
supplementary lessons in spelling should be oral h^ssons. But 
oral spelling loses its native interest when interrupted by tests 
on " meanings." Therefore, except in cases where the mean- 
ing of words, rather than their pronunciation, determines the 
spelling, the tests on meanings should either precede or follow 
the regular spelling exercise. 

(2) In our days it is supposed that only heretics in educa- 



158 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

tion would advocate spelling lessons in which the meaning of 
all the words cannot be taught. This is high ground to take. 
The view is based on a false creed in psychology and peda- 
gogy, (a) In the first place, it is wrongly supposed that 
memory ought to be absolutely dependent on the understand- 
ing. The order in which the mental functions mature con- 
futes this theory. (See the eleventh law of Mental Activity.) 
Then, too, a good mechanical memory, i.e., associative memory 
unassisted by the understanding, is the best equipment for 
more than one important task in the practical affairs of life. 
(6) In the second place, it is economy in pedagogy to teach the 
younger pupils the spelling of words whose meanings they can- 
not fully master for the time being on account of immaturity. 
This conclusion follows from several obvious facts : First, the 
mind of younger pupils is able to spell, though unable to mas- 
ter meanings. Second, the programme of younger pupils is 
not crowded. This leaves room for stress on spelling as spell- 
ing. Tluis time and possibilities are utilized. Third, the 
competitive interest is present as a sufficient stimulus to the 
necessary associative efforts. Fourth, the meanings of words 
are readily mastered in due time, whereas the spelling of words 
requires too much time and effort when the epoch of thought- 
lessons has come. 

(3) It is therefore maintained, as we think, on sufficient 
grounds, and earnestly advocated, that regular spelling lessons 
from spelling-books be kept in our course of studies, whether 
or not we find time enough to teach the meaning of all the 
words as fast as we go in spelling. If any other argument is 
demanded, it may be confidently affirmed that those who 
learned to spell under the old spelling-book stimulus are in- 
finitely superior in j^ractical si)clling. There is no doubt about 
it that the spelling-book has been abused, and that it will be 
abused ; but, all things considered, its legitimate use will pro- 
duce an ability in spelling that is most gratifying, whereas its 



SPELLING 159 

disuse has sent a great host of Josh. Billings into our Normal 
Schools, Colleges, and other spheres. The necessary " stress" 
on spelling as spelling is best secured by systematic, persistent 
use of a good spelling-book. 

III. SUPPLEMENTARY DEVICES IN SPELLING. 

The tasks of the pupil in learning to spell, as pointed out, 
are, (1) Observation ; (2) Recollect! ve Practice ; and (3) The 
Discovery and Use of Rules. But the pupil will be more 
likely to perform these tasks vigorously and habitually if the 
proper stimulus is supplied. In most instances it is not an 
adequate stimulus, to insist simply on the importance of 
spelling. This argument somehow fails to touch the ordi- 
nary pupil to the quick. Any appeal to the competitive 
instinct is more effective. The competitive instinct is utilized 
in the following devices : (1) The Method of Trapping ; (2) 
Reviews ; (3) Recreations in Word-Building ; and (4) Spell- 
ing Matches. 

The Method of Trapping". The "trapping" system is 
most eifective in oral recitations, and with younger pupils, 
but can be used to advantage in written recitations, and with 
older pupils. (1) In the written recitation the number of 
errors determines the respective places. The matter must be 
settled at the close of the recitation, though the places should 
not be taken until the next recitation. The pupil will usually 
see to it that places are not wrongly taken. The seats, slates, 
corrections, etc., must be carefully supervised to prevent dis- 
honesty. (2) In oral recitations the temptation to cheat is not 
so great, and attempts to do so are more readily detected. The 
method of trapping in oral spelling classes adds a difficult task 
to that of conducting the class, namely, the prevention and 
cure of such feelings as anger, envy, pride, etc. Vigilance and 
absolute justice are therefore imperative. It is a good plan to 
require the pupil at the head to start again at the foot. This 



160 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

device is in most instances enjoyed as much by the pupil that 
goes down foot as by the others. 

Revie-ws. It was pointed out that at the close of regular 
written recitations in spelling, the misspelled words should be 
recorded in a book kept for that purpose. At stated times 
these lists should be used as a review lesson. The words 
marked as misspelled in oral recitations may also be used in 
the same way. The importance of such reviews can hardly be 
over-estimated, seeing that they make it necessary for pupils 
to study the very words which ought to be studied. The list 
of words to be spelled in reviews may, for the same reason, 
be selected from readers, examination papers, compositions, 
etc., but always with adaptation to the pupils' grade. (See 
First, Second, and Third Principles of Instruction.) 

Recreations in "Word-Building. Various recreations in 
spelling have been proposed by ingenious teachers. These 
devices are useful as supplementary w^ork for pupils w^hose 
time cannot otherwise be advantageously utilized. It is, how- 
ever, doubtful whether such recreations should ever be allowed 
to take the place of the ordinary spelling lessons. As a stim- 
ulus to word-building the following recreation has been pro- 
posed : The pupil takes any fertile word, as subscription, and 
writes in a column all the words which he can construct, using 
any letter of the given word only once in each new word, or 
as often as it occurs in the given word. The new words must 
of course be true words. It is surprising how many words 
can be built up by young pupils in this way. 

Spelling Matches. (1) The oral spelling matcli, as every 
one who has any personal knowledge of the matter, knows, is 
a most stimulating variety in the study of spelling. The 
competitive instinct is thus excited throughout the school, and 
sometimes throughout the community to which the scliool 
belongs. A written spelling match, though quite tame when 
compared with the oral spelling matches, is nevertheless very 



SPELLING 161 

effective if wisely conducted. Review lessons may be con- 
ducted with advantage in this way. Spelling matches should 
not come too often. They encroach too much upon regular 
work. When they do come, say once in two weeks, the con- 
ditions should be clearly understood, so as to avoid various 
evils. Disorderliness must be strictly excluded. (2) Inge- 
nious teachers have hit upon more than one good way to con- 
duct spelling matches. Among others the following are rec- 
ommended : 

The Common Mdliod. In the common spelling match two 
persons of about equal ability are appointed by the teacher, or 
selected by the class, to be the " leaders," or " captains," of 
" sides." These captains come forward, and, after deciding 
which one is to have first choice, call up alternately the per- 
sons who are to take part in the contest. In this way the 
" sides" are formed on opposite sides of the room. When the 
lines have been formed, the teacher proceeds to assign the 
words to be spelled. He assigns the first word to the captain 
that had the first choice in choosing " sides." If the captain 
to whom the word was assigned misses, he is required to take 
his seat, i.e., he is " spelled down." The other captain then 
takes his turn to spell the word that was missed. If he misses, 
he takes his seat, etc. The side that remains on the floor last, 
or that has more spellers left, at the close of the contest, is 
declared the winning side. The time to be allowed, or the 
list of words to be used, should be settled before the match 
begins. There are several obvious objections to this method 
of spelling. 

Saving and Out. The common method can be converted 
into a better method by a variation in the process of spelling 
down. The plan is as follows : If A, and then his opponent 
B, misses a word, but C spells it, A is " saved" from taking 
his seat and only B is " out." In this way, two, three, and 
more persons, are sometimes saved to a side. The merits of 

11 



162 PRINCirLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

this method are evident. " Saving and out/' is probably the 
best of all the methods for oral spelling matches. 

A Written Spelling Match. Written spelling matches, when 
wisely conducted, are not as uninteresting as it is sometimes 
supposed. The choosing of sides can be managed as in oral 
spelling. The chief difficulty is to seat the spellers so as to 
keep those of the same side from helping each other. This 
difficulty is usually overcome by alternate seating, i.e., by so 
arranging the spellers in seats as to separate those of one side 
by means of the spellers of the opposing side. When the 
number of words upon which it was agreed, has been spelled, 
slates, or books, may be exchanged, opponents correcting the 
words of opponents, and reporting the number of mistakes. 
All the spellers must be allowed to appeal to the teacher before 
the final results are announced. The side which, on adding 
up mistakes, is found to have missed the greater number of 
words, is declared " vanquished," or " defeated," or " lost." 

There are four or five other methods of conducting spelling 
matches, but tliey hardly deserve recognition here. Ingenious 
teachers may invent plans to suit themselves, but the attempt 
to change plans too often is productive of misunderstandings, 
and should therefore be avoided. The teacher must in all 
cases see to it that quarrels and bitterness do not result from 
these competitive exercises in spelling. 

IV. RELATIVE MERITS OF WRITTEN AND ORAL SPELLING. 

The questions now confront us. What are the merits of writ- 
ten spelling and of oral spelling? Which of the two modes 
deserves to be cultivated rather than the other? Do both 
modes of spelling deserve equal respect? In order to answer 
these questions we must inquire into the advantages and dis- 
advantages of each method. 

The Advantages of 'Written Spelling-. There are at 
least three important advantages in written spelling : (1) Writ- 



SPELLING 163 

ten spelling is more instructive than oral spelling ; (2) The 
mental discipline of written spelling is greater than that of 
oral s]3elling ; and (3) The practical necessity of written spell- 
ing is greater than that of oral spelling. 

1 . Written spelling is more instructive than oral spelling. 

(1) The " after-images" of sight are generally more persist- 
ent than those of hearing. (See Psychology.) In written 
spelling the letters of a word, and their true order, are there- 
fore impressed more indelibly. This result is illustrated in 
the fact that pupils whose sight is defective generally find it 
harder to master spelling, than those whose sight is perfect. 
The fact that deaf pupils learn to spell sooner than blind 
pupils, proves the rule. 

(2) In written spelling the eye can dwell longer on the 
word just spelled, thus stimulating the habit of corrective 
comparisons, and producing vividness of sensation, the essen- 
tial to persistent associations in memory, (See the sixth law 
of Mental Activity.) Words orally spelled are lost to the ear 
almost instantaneously. Thus we see that by reason of the 
greater corrective possibilities in written spelling, it is the 
better mode of studying spelling. This conclusion is illus- 
trated in the well-known habit of writing a word to see how 
it looks when we are not sure that we have spelled it right 
orally. The conclusion is also confirmed by the fact that per- 
sons who learn to spell by eye can spell well orally and in 
composition, whereas those who can spell well orally often 
spell poorly in composition. 

2. The mental discipline of written spelling is greater than that 

of oral spelling. 

(1) In written spelling every pupil is required to spell every 
word. This is not true in oral spelling, except, perhaps, where 
the teacher is a master in his art. 

(2) In written spelling the pupil is required to pay unflag- 



164 rillNCIPLES AN!) MIOTIIODS OK TKACFTING 

jjjinj:; attention. TIiIh (liHcipliiu; (hivclops ilio power to perHe- 
vcre in a tawk to its end. 'i'luin; is no Kp('ci(!H of (!nlttn-(; that 
HnrpasHCH IIiIh pow(!r of rcsolutx; attention. 'J'Ik; pnj)il tJiat 
Icnrns U> \)ny iinllu^^^in^ attention in tin; Hpellinp; olasH, is ho 
many st><'|)H ncanT to shocichh in other HtiidicH and in life. Oral 
Hp(!llinf^, (ixccj)!, in th(! hands of ran; t<!a(;li(!rH, <loes not produce 
theH(! ((Heots on th(! |)ni)irH will, and liencc is morally inferior. 
(.'}) ft iH in wriit(!n H|)<!llinj^, an was poinlxd ont, that r(!(!ords 
of niisHp{!lled words ean be most systematical ly kc^pt for ro- 
viowH. While siieh re(!ords an; partly possible in oral sp(!lling, 
the procednre is hws satiHfa(!tx)ry. 

3. The practical necemfy of written spcJImg is f/rcater than thai 
of oral HpcUhuj. 

In th(^ ordinary allliirs of Iif(! we eonld almost dispense 
with oral s|)ellin}j^. It is dilferent with written sjx'llinji:; ; we 
need it almost every day and in the most varied interests. 
TIk! ability to spf^ll orally is not, as was pointed ont, a snf- 
ficient gnarantee that a jXTSon vixn spell eorrecitly in writing 
](!ti<'rs, etc. Correct H})elling in "writings," as it will be 
pointed ont at the (^lose of tliis cha|)t<'r, is desirable both on 
its own acconnt, and tor otluir reasons. 

The Advantages of Oral Spelling-. Ther<^ an; at least 
three advantages in or;d spelling: (l)()ral spelling is more 
convenient incidentally than written spelling; (2) Oral spell- 
ing is the n;iliMal sn|)|)lem(nit to written sjx'lling; and (.'i) 
Oi'al spelling is more interesting than written sjuilling. 

1. Ontl xjulthig Ik more convenient incidentally thnn ivritten 
KpeUhuj. 
I*npils shonld be recpiired to sjx'll any sns|)icions word 
in any recitation of school. l^^bisivc terms, and technical 
terms, can often be delinitely ])lace(l in memory by simply 
Hj)elling them a few tim(»H. It is generally more (M)nv<'nient 
ix) h\mA\ h\\v\\ words orally, tliongh it nnist be conceded that 



SPELLING 165 

wordw which will slip again and again muHt he written to h(; 
mast<!r(;(l. This task may take lojiger, hut as it i.s important, 
it HJiould not ho n(;gl(;ot<;d. 

2. Oral spelling in Lite natural HUpplemenl lo vrrilten Hpelling. 

In the cascH of defective sight, ho common in our days, 
rcHort to oral HjM;lling is wrtainly jiiHtifiahle as a HiJ[)plernent 
or Huhstitute. Jt was also pointed out in tlie j)aragraj)h on 
"Preparation of S[)e]ling LeKHon.s," that th(! HenscH reinforce 
each other in the work of wjmrnitting Homcithing to memory. 
In other words, if tlie ])n[)il'H (;ye is linreiial^h!, his ear must 
be made to do something to hel]) tlie eye. 

'i. Oral HpeMing in rmrre inter eMing titan vrrilten upelling. 

(1) The competitive instinct iw Htimulated more Huax^Hsfully 
in oral than in written spelling. 

(2) In oral spelling j)uj)ils should herecpiired t(; stand; this 
r(!(piirement relieves the monotfjny of sitting still in the seats, 
and thus [)leases pupils. 

('>) <^>ral spelling is itself a pleasure to pupils; it is an op- 
portunity tf) use th(;ir vm;al organs, an opporlunity which most 
pupils welcome instinctively, (sspecially if they arr; younger 
pupils. This intxrest in oral spelling deserves consideration. 
(See the Third Principle of Instruction.) 

V. PTiTNCTPLES OF INHTRUCTION. 

The foregoing f^>nsid('rations lead us to several l)roa/l w>n- 
clusions, which deserve U) be adopt(;d as principles of instruc- 
tion in sjKjlling. 

1. The words which the pupil meets in the studies of 
his ^ade should be developed into a working vocabu- 
lary. The list of words to be Hjjelled by pui)ils in elementary 
grafles, should f^jnsist of words which tlif.se pu|)i]s mcjci in all 
the studies of those grades. The same rule should hold in 
grammar grades and higher grades. The teacher must see to 



\r,r, I'imn(;ii'F,i<;h and mktmodh of tkacjiifncj 

il, (liut juijiilH iiol, only learn to HpoII IIhjho wordn, hut alw) to 
iiH<; (,li(!m iiil/(;Ilij^('iil,ly, wIh'I-Ikt it be in Htiulyin^^ and rc^eitin^ 
tlic variouH IrHHonH of rcadinj^, liislory, ^'^ograpliy, ilc.., or in 
writing U'IUwh, <!HHuyH, vie. (S<!(; tJic Fouilli I'rincijdc of fn- 
Hlrnclion.) 'I'Ihh work /nay Ix; <'<)nil)incd vvilli tli<; lessons in 
r(';idin|^-, liiHi-ory, j^cjirnniar, etc., or it iriiiy \h\ don*; in Hj)('(^ial 
Hpcllinj; l(!HHonH. 11" Hpecial rccitatioiiH aro wt aj>urt for Hiicli 
work, lli(! list of words Hcileelx^d hy tlie t,4;i(;li<'r may Ix; writt(!n 
on iJic. l)la(;U-l)oard wlwirc; llic, claHH can ho.c and Htndy tlicrn, 

2. The exact pHychological complement and sufficient 
btirauhiH of oral Hpollin^ should be added to written epell- 
in^. (l)Sin(u; oral H|t('llinj^ is a nnhstiliiU' for vvritt(!n sjxtll- 
in^ in (lie cjisc of j)n|iils vvlios(t si^lit, is dcfcotivc, or a coni- 
|tl<nicn(, in (lie formal ion of prrsislcnl asHociialions, it f()IIowH 
iJial (Ik; (x'aclicr slionld sdidy liis class, and then ;i(ljnst ilu; 
projtorlion of wrillcn :md oi;il spelling U> ilw. needs of IIk; 
<!luHH. ('i) SiiKc llie eompelilive insliriel e;in he nlilized to 
l)clter !idvan(a,}i,(' in oral tliaii in vvrid.en H|»eilin^, (here onj^lit 
(o l)e or;d Hjx'llinji; in (Jiose e;ises wlu're i( is advan(a^<!ons, '/.^'., 
in reiiding (tlasHcs, in odier l»rime.li(;s, and .'is Hp(!(;ial hwHonH 
with younger |»npilH. 

3, The " Bpelliner-book" should be used as much as 
proper " stress" and " economy" require. (1) 'I'lie Kpelling- 
|)ook lias alvv.'iyH <'mj)liasiy,ed (lie impoilanee of spelling as a 
Hid)jee(. of s(.ii<ly. Wliei-ever it (idls iii(o disuse, (e:ieliers an; 
likely to pay (oo lidJc; adenlion (o spelling, and pupils fall 
into lial)i(s of eiireless s|>elling. (2) Meonomy recpiiies (liat 
lis(H of words Ix- m;is(er<'d in spelling, even wlien tlie woi'ds 
<-.anno(. all Ix- developed in(o a woi'king voe;i,l)idary. (a) Tlu; 
mind of (lie |)ii|)il is re;idy (lir (his (nsk : asH(xaalivo memory, 
s(,innila(e(l hy (he eompedlive insiin(!(. which is presen( in 
yonnger pn|>ils, li(s (hem (o <lo (he re(piired woi'k. (See (he 
Klevendi Law of M(!n(,al Aclivity :uid (he Si.\(li rrineiple of 
luHtriK^don.) (h) There is a g<xxl deal of (inie on the hands 



SPELLING ] 07 

of youngfir pupils, whidi can \)<: uiili/c*] in hucI) l(«wjrjH, (cj 
Moreover, wherever tlie Hpellin^-boo]< \ix^ f>e/;n wisely used, 
the results have U;en gratifying. 

VJ. CO UliHK OF LKHHONS. 

It is evident from the pritieipUjH of iriHtruetion in Kfj<;lling, 
that the course of l(«Hon8 nhould be aw follows : (1) T\ut voeuh- 
ulary of the grade Ut whieh the puj)il belongs should bf, 
mast^;n^] in spelling; and (2 j there should })<t a parallel and 
supplementary f;^jurse in the spelling-U>ok. 

1. Vocabulary LeBBons. The pupil ncjAn an ever-in- 
crfiasing vocabulary in order (1) that he may understand 
books, and (2j that he may express his thf^ughts. It is ob- 
vious that this list of words (the pupil's necessary vocabulary) 
is the list to Ik; sjxlled ly^fore any other work in spelling is 
done. 

2. Ttie Spelling-Book. Tlie pnjsent nea^ssity of the pupil 
(IcHcrvitH the t(ia';her's first attention ; but, as pointful out on 
page 70, the future new^sity of the [)U[>il df^serves attfmtion, 
t^jo. In other words, when [)Uj)ils arrive at a cfirtain st^ge in 
their progress, their working vocabulary nwds t/j Ix; increased 
so fast that, unless thf;y have aln;ady learnf^^J to sjk-.II many 
of the words, tliey will ri'^t have time enough to mastf;r lx>th 
S{>elling and m(;anings, anrl are therefore likely to neglw.-t the 
S[Killing. Toavf^id this evil, thf; lists of a grad^^rJ s}>el ling-book 
are U) \xi H[)(;\h:<\ somewhat in advance of the actual vocabu- 
lary need of the pupil. 

YU. 'HIE IMPORTANCE OF 8PELLING, 

There are very few subj(;r;ts of study so seriously ncfj^h'/^td 
as that of spelling. The imjK>rtanwj of other studies is mon,* 
obvious, and this pushf^; sfKjlling int^> the backgroiiud of our 
estimation. The following estimate of spelling seems fair: 
(Ij The di:-/;ipline of s[>elling has a moral and practical 



168 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

radius; and (2) good spelling is a desirable instrument in 
written communications, whether they be commercial, social, 
or literary and scientific. 

1. The Discipline of Spelling. The habits and tastes cul- 
tivated in the efforts required to master spelling, assert them- 
selves as habits and tastes in the moral and practical activities 
of pupils. In other words, the habits of attention, accuracy, 
and correction, which the pupil must cultivate in order to 
master spelling, will in time become habits and tastes in his 
other studies, and in his moral and practical dealings. 

2. The Desirability of Ability in Spelling-. (1) The 
young people that seek positions of trust and honor, must give 
evidence of character in most unexpected ways. A business 
man knows, when he reads the letter of an applicant for a posi- 
tion, whether he may safely employ the applicant or not. He 
knows this not only by observing the penmanship and indi- 
viduality of the letter, but also by the spelling of the words 
used in the letter. (2) What is true of written intercourse 
with business men, is equally true of social letters, literary 
products, and scientific treatises. We think better of our cor- 
respondents when they spell well. We could not tolerate bad 
spelling in literature and scientific treatises. There is no 
reason why these ideals should not be respected in our school 
curriculum. (3) It is to be deplored, therefore, that spelling 
has fallen into such great neglect as facts at present show, and 
the evil should be corrected in all grades of our schools. 



COMPOSITION 169 

CHAPTER VI. 

COMPOSITION. 

The purpose in hand requires reference to (1) The Nature 
of Composition, and (2) Instruction in Composition. 

A. THE NATURE OP COMPOSITION. 

The nature of composition is conveniently treated under the 
following heads: (1) The Selection of a Subject; (2) The 
Cumulation of Materials ; (3) The Plan of Construction ; and 
(4) The Construction of a Composition. 

The Selection of a Subject. In the ultimate sense, com- 
position, as the origin of the word denotes, is not cumulation, 
but construction. If composition were only cumulation, and 
not also construction, any collection of materials would serve 
the purpose as ^vell as any other. The supreme concern would 
then be to fill up space. If, as indicated, composition is con- 
struction, the selection of a subject must be the first task. 
The selection of a subject in composition determines what 
materials ought to be accumulated, and what plan of construc- 
tion is most appropriate, just as in architecture the species of 
building to be erected determines these matters. The mate- 
rials and plan that will do for a story, for example, will not 
do at all for a thesis, just as the materials and plan for a 
cottage will not do for a fortress. 

The Cumulation of Materials. In architecture the two 
important considerations are (1) the plan of the house, and (2) 
the material resources. The man of means need not count 
the costs beforehand, when he is about to build a house. For 
him it is possible to plan the house to suit his taste, and to let 



170 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

the costs be what they will. But the man of limited means 
should first examine his bank account, and then plan his house 
within his means. In composition, as in architecture, the two 
important considerations after selecting a subject, are (1) the 
plan of construction, and (2) the material resources. The man 
of large mental resources need not count the costs beforehand, 
when he is about to write a composition. For him it is pos- 
sible to plan the construction according to the ends in view, 
regardless of the mental costs. But the man of limited men- 
tal means should first ascertain his resources, and then plan 
his composition. 

If the materials are collected before the plan of construc- 
tion is matured, a tentative plan should be followed in the col- 
lection. In that event, it is true, the supply may exceed the 
demand of the ultimate plan ; but this is infinitely better than 
poverty in supply. Indeed, the supply of materials should 
be much greater than the demand. In that event critical 
selection of materials becomes possible, and this is a most 
desirable possibility. 

The Plan of Construction. When the collection of mate- 
rials has been accomplished, the tentative plan of structure 
should be developed into an ultimate plan. The plan of a 
composition is commonly termed Outline, or Synopsis. A 
synopsis in composition is a "draught" for the composer. 
It represents the phases of the subject, and therefore serves as 
a frame or skeleton for the collected materials. The composer 
simply covers this frame, or clothes the skeleton, with suitable 
materials, and thus completes the structure. In order that a 
synopsis may serve its purpose, it must be specific, i.e., it must 
be designed for the particular species of composition to be 
constructed. 

Species of Composition. The species of composition are as 
follows : (1) Description, (2) Narration, (3) Letters, (4) Essays, 
(5) Orations, and (6) Poems. 



COMPOSITION 171 

(1) A composition devoted to the qualities of an object, per- 
son, scene, or phenomenon, is termed a Description. (2) A 
composition concerned with events, whether they be fictitious or 
true, is termed a Narration. Tales, stories, anecdotes, biogra- 
phy, history, novels, etc., are species of narration. (3) A Letter 
is a written communication from one person to another. The 
species of letters are didactic, news, official, commercial, in- 
troductory, etc. (4) A brief composition devoted to the ex- 
pression of opinions on important subjects, is termed an Essay. 
Editorials, reviews, etc., are common examples of essays. A 
Thesis is a lengthy and logical essay on some dignified subject. 
A text-book is a thesis. (5) A composition intended for hear- 
ers, is termed an Oration. Speeches, addresses, lectures, ser- 
mons, etc., are species of oration. (6) A metrical composition 
constructed to please the taste, is termed a Poem. Hymns 
are poems. 

The skeleton of a description should promote organic 
sequence in construction ; that of narration, chronological 
sequence ; and that of essays or orations, syllogistic sequence. 
The following outlines are illustrations of these requirements. 



A THEEilOMETER. (Description.) 

DsTRODUCTION. 

1. Variations in temperature. 

2. The need of exact measurement op tempera- 

ture. 

THE INVENTION OF THE THEEM0:METER. 

1. It had long been noticed that bodies expand 

and shrink. 

2. This suggested the possibility of constructing 

A thermometer. 



172 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE THERMOMETER. 

1. a hollow tube with bulb is needed. 

2. The bulb is filled with mercury. 

3. a vacuum is left above. 

4. How THE MEASURING IS DONE. 

1. The tube is fixed in a marhed plate. 

2. The degrees are counted upwards. 

5. How THE SCALE IS MADE. 

1. The tube is immersed in melting ice for the freezing- 

point. 

2. Plunged into steam for the boiling-point. 

3. The intervening space is divided into equal spaces. 

CONCLUSION: ITS USES. 

1. To COMPARE THE HEAT OF DIFFERENT CLIMATES. 

2. In THE ARTS. 

FIVE YEARS' EXPERIENCE WITH A SUNDAY-SCHOOL 
CLASS. 

( Clark's Practical Rhetoric. ) ( Narration. ) 

INTRODUCTION. 

MY HESITATION ABOUT TAKING THE CLASS, AND THE 
FIRST SABBATH. 

THE CLASS. 

1. Original members. 

2. Changes. 

THE PUPILS. 

1. Personal appearance. 

2. Characters. 

3. Home Surroundings. 



COMPOSITION 173 

THE WORK. 

1. Difficulties. 

2. Willingness of the children to learn. 

3. New perplexities. 

4. One benefit. 

MEMORIES. 

1. The SUNDAY-SCHOOL HOUR. 

2. Confidence and good-will of the children. 

3. A death-bed. 

4. A Christmas morning. 

SCHOLARS AT PRESENT, AND A THOUGHT ABOUT THE 
FUTURE. 

CONCLUSION. 

WILLIAM SHAKESPEAEE. {Biography.') 
INTRODUCTION. 

1. The rarity of masters in literature. 

2. Reference to several masters. 

THE circumstances OF SHAKESPEARE'S BIRTH. 

1. Date. 

1. Character of the Times. 

2. Place. 

3. Parents, 

CHILDHOOD AND YOUTH. 

1. Opportunities. 

2. Habits. 

3. Incidents and anecdotes. 

4. Crises. 



174 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 
MANHOOD. 

1. Talents. 

2. Occupation. 

3. Achievements. 

4. Critical estimates. 

1. /Shakespeare's character. 

2. Bhakespear^s works. 

3. Shakespeare's enduring fame. 

CONCLUSION. 

1. Death. 

1. Obsequies. 

2. Resiling pla^e. 

3. Reflections. 

HABITS. (Essay.) 
INTRODUCTION. 

1. Interesting anecdotes. 
What is a habit? 

How does anything become a habit? Examples. 
"What habits are possible? 

1. A very important possibility. 
What habits should we cultivate? 

1 . T7ie governing considerations. 

2. Good habits enumerated and defined. 

3. Tlie worth of good habits. 

The persistency of habits. Examples. 

1 . How to destroy bad, habits. Anecdotes. 

2. The curse of evil habits. 

CONCLUSION. 

1 . How careful we should he in forming habits. 



COMPOSITION 175 

WILL. {Thesis.) 
INTRODUCTION. 

1. The ability to govern oueselves is termed 

WILL. 

2. Any exercise of this ability is termed will- 

ing, or volition. 

THE NATURE OF WILL. 

1. Motives. The influences that enter, but do not irresist- 

ibly determine, a voluntary struggle, are termed Mo- 
tives. 

2. Decxsion. The voluntary selection of an alternative, 

after comparing it with others, is termed Decision. 

1. Intention. The voluntary selection of an alter- 

native whose attainment is prospective, Is 
termed Intentio'a. 

(1) Vigorous intention is termed Purpose. 

Examples. 

(2) Invincible purpose is termed Resolu- 

tion. Examples. 

2. Attention. The voluntary and uninterrupted se- 

lection of one alternative rather than others, 
is termed Attention. 

THE CULTIVATION OF WILL. 

1. Development of noble conceptions and feel- 

ings. 

2. Vigorous and resolute activity in all tasks. 

3. The pupil's efforts must be stimulated, super- 

vised, ASSISTED. 

CONCLUSION. 

1. The worth of will. 

2. The importance of its culture. 



176 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

THE PROBABILITIES. (Lecture.) 

INTRODUCTION. 

NOW ON THE WAY TO BE TEACHERS. 

1. The influences hitherto at work in you. 

2. The difference of personal attitude. 

1. JEnds in viev). 

2. The " hearV^ in each attitude. 

3. Resolution, weak or strong. 

THE PROBABILITIES. 

1. There will be work for you to do. 

1, Tlie demand for teachers. 

2. Prudent preparation, " Professional Training." 

2. Whether you will ije worthy op 80 noble a 

calling, must depend to a great extent on 
your own efforts. 

1. Exercise is the price of culture. 

1. In it must bo a good head. 

2. In it must be a whole heart. 

3. In it must be a set purpose. 

2. Study is the price of wisdom. 

1. In it must be humility. 

2. In it must be constancy. 

3. In it must be vigor. 

3. The lives of many will be put into your keep- 

ing FOR weal or woe. ThUS IT APPEARS IM- 
PORTANT, 

1. That you should, understand your business. 

2. Avid that you should mind your business. 

CONCLUSION. 



COMPOSITION 177 

The Construction of a Composition. " A mass of mate- 
rials, however fine the quality, no more constitutes a composi- 
tion than a pile of bricks and lumber constitutes a palace. 
The builder must select, fit, and join to<5ether the materials 
before there is a building." The parts of the frame, or skele- 
ton, in composition, represent, as it has been explained, the 
l)l)ases of tiie subject, and determine what materials to use in 
completing the structure. Therefore, when the framework 
of the proposed composition has been erected, the collected 
thoughts must be arranged as required by the framework. 

In order to obtain favor, a composition must be brought 
into connection with the occasion. This is generally accom- 
plished by means of (1) reference to current events, (2) anec- 
dotes, (3) striking statement of the propositions to be discussed, 
etc. The portion of the composition devoted to this purpose, 
is termed the Inlroductlon. The portion of the composition 
that expresses the message to be expressed, is termed the Body 
of the composition. A composition should produce definite 
and desirable consequences in readers or hearers. This is 
generally accomplished l>y (1) a recapitulation of arguments, 
(2) an appeal to the feelings, etc. The portion of the a)mpo- 
sition devoted to this purpose, is termed the Condufdon. 
Thus it appears that the necessary parts of a formal composi- 
tion are the Introduction, the Body, and the Conclusion. 
These requirements need not be insisted on in an informal 
composition. 

Med lanical Execution. (1) If the composition occupies only 
one page, let us say a page of foolscai), the subject is to be writ- 
ten on the top line, between equal margins. The text is to begin 
on the third line, an inch or more from the margin of the page. 
After neatly folding the upper and the lower third of the i)age 
upon the middle third, the subject, the name of the writer, the 
date, etc., should be written crosswise upon the middle third. 
Taste in arrangement is very desirable. (2) If the composition 

12 



178 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

occupies a number of pages, as in the case of a thesis, the first 
page should be devoted to the statement of the subject, the name 
of the writer, the date, etc. Only one page of a sheet should 
be used. The synopsis, or skeleton, should be written on the 
third page. The subject of a composition, appropriately and 
interestingly stated, should be written on the first line of the 
fifth page. The following line should not be used. The In- 
troduction should begin on the third line, with the usual mar- 
gin of an inch or more. Headings of the sections of a chapter 
should be written across the page with one line unoccupied be- 
fore and after them. (3) That which is said about each phase 
of the subject, as represented by the skeleton, is termed a 
Paragraph. Each paragraph is a composition in itself, and 
all the paragraphs taken together in their true order, constitute 
the com position- whole. The subject of each paragraph should 
be stated in appropriate words, and concisely. This statement, 
or heading, should be written on the first line of the paragraph, 
underscored, and separated from the first sentence by a period 
and considerable space. When no paragraph headings are 
used, as in subordinate paragraphs, the first line of the para- 
graph should begin an inch or more from the left margin of 
the page. A paragraph should never begin on the unfinished 
line of a preceding paragraph. The paragraphs should be as 
perfect as possible in the choice of words, correctness and effec- 
tiveness of sentences, figures of speech, punctuation, capitals, 
illustrations, quotations, etc. 

Finishing- Touches. Improprieties and errors in a com- 
position should be criticised and corrected. 

Criticism. Errors and improprieties will creep into a com- 
position, do what we may to keep them out. Among the de- 
fects that commonly creep into a composition are (1) the choice 
of inferior thoughts, (2) an inferior plan of structure, (3) de- 
fective junction of paragraphs, (4) weak illustrations and quo- 
tations, (5) poor taste in figures of speech, (6) faulty vocabu- 



COMPOSITION 179 

lary, (7) iucorrect spelling, (8) poor penmanship, (9) faulty 
sentences, (10) defective punctuation, (11) errors in capitaliza- 
tion, (12) carelessness in details. These imperfections, whether 
they be matter or form, are injurious to the composition. The 
writer should therefore repeatedly revise his production, and 
the revision should be both critical and unsparing. 

Correction. The author of a composition may be very con- 
scientious in revision, and yet fail to perfect his composition. 
It requires years of discipline to become an adept in the busi- 
ness of composing. Until the composer has become a master 
in his art, supervision and assistance must be added to re- 
vision. In other words, a superior must point out imperfec- 
tions and assist the writer in perfecting a composition. 

B. INSTRUCTION IN COMPOSITION. 

The teacher of composition, as we must infer from the 
nature of the tasks in question, should understand (1) Super- 
vision in Composition, (2) The Principles of Procedure, (3) The 
Courses of Lessons, and (4) The Importance of Composition. 

Supervision in Composition. The teacher's supervision 
in composition, as we know from the tasks of the pupil, must 
extend over (1) The Selection of a Subject, (2) The Cumula- 
tion of Materials, (3) The Plan of Construction, (4) The Con- 
struction of the Composition, and (5) The Finish. 

Effective Selection of Subjects. There are three govern- 
ing considerations in the selection of subjects for compositions : 
(1) The subject should be suitable in itself; (2) The subject 
sliould be suited to the writer's present powers ; and (3) The 
subject should be suited to the occasion. 

Effective Cumulation of Materials. Among the govern- 
ing considerations in collecting thoughts and language for a 
composition, are the following : (1) The method of cumulation 
should be consistent with the nature of the subject. Within 
the domain of experience, for example, observation is more 



180 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

effective than reading. (2) The cumulation should be con- 
sistent with the composer's constructive powers. The young 
writer, for example, should not attempt to collect abstract and 
general thoughts. (3) The cumulation should be consistent 
with the purpose of the composition. The occasion, the intel- 
ligence of the reader or hearer, etc., must be considered in 
collecting materials of thought and language. 

Effective Planning of the Composition. Among the 
governing considerations in the plan of a composition are the 
following : (1) The plan of construction should be consistent 
with the species of composition to be constructed. The plan 
of a story, for example, would not do for a thesis. (2) The 
plan of construction should be the most suitable framework for 
the materials to be employed in construction. It should be a 
guide in collecting materials and a skeleton for the composi- 
tion to be constructed. (3) The tentative plan used in collect- 
ing materials should be critically revised until it becomes most 
effective. When it has become a habit to plan compositions, 
and to persevere in the efforts to find the best plan, great 
progress has been made toward mastery in composition. 

Effective Construction of the Composition. Among 
the governing considerations, in writing out a composition, 
are the following: (1) A composition should be constructed 
in obedience to the plan of construction. Deviations should 
be attempted only for good reasons. (2) The collected mate- 
rials of thought should be arranged in the most effective way. 
This requirement refers to the development of the paragraphs, 
the possible arrangements being either inductive or deductive, 
analytic, or synthetic. (3) The language of a composition 
should be choice and effective. This requirement refers to the 
selection of words, the structure of sentences, the figures of 
speech, the taste in mechanical execution, the punctuation, the 
capitals, etc. This is the domain of Style. 

Diction. The selection and use of words, is termed Die- 



COMPOSITION 181 

tion. The effective qualities of diction are (1) Purity, (2) 
Propriety, and (3) Precision. A word is pure when it is used 
by the best writers and speakers. A word is appropriate when 
it expresses the writer's meaning. A word is precise when it 
expresses the writer's meaning exactly. 

The Structure of Sentences. The arrangement of the words, 
phrases, and clauses, of a sentence, is termed its Structure. 
The desirable qualities of a sentence are, (1) Concord, (2) 
Clearness, (3) Unity, (4) Energy, and (5) Harmony. A sen- 
tence has Concord when it does not violate the laws of gram- 
mar. A sentence has Clearness when its meaning cannot be 
mistaken. A sentence has Unity when its parts are closely 
related. A sentence has Energy when its words are so selected 
and placed as to convey the thought with force. A sentence 
has Harmony when its utterance is pleasant and suggestive to 
the ear. 

Figures of Speech. Deviations from the ordinary modes of 
speech, are termed Figures of Speech. There are four species 
of figures : (1) Figures of Orthography, (2) Figures of Ety- 
mology, (3) Figures of Syntax, and (4) Figures of Rhetoric. 
Expressions in which the mode of thought is changed, are 
termed Figures of Rhetoric. Among the most desirable 
figures of rhetoric are Simile, Metaphor, and Personification. 
A Simile expresses the likeness of several objects, actions, or 
relations. Ex. "Reason is to faith as the eye to the tele- 
scope." A Metaphor implies the likeness of several objects, 
actions, or relations. Ex. "Her smile was the dawn of a 
radiant day." A Personification attributes life and mind to 
beings that are not persons. Ex. " The very stones of Rome 
will rise in mutiny." Figures of rhetoric, because of the 
grace and force which they add to discourse, should be studied 
and introduced with taste into composition. Reference to 
some treatise on Rhetoric will be necessary in this task of 
composition. 



182 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

Taste in Composition. Appreciation of proprieties is termed 
Taste. Good taste is a respect for beauty, sublimity, pathos, and 
humor. Good taste in composition also respects mechanical 
adai)tations, such as places on the page, the uses of spaces, eia. 

Punctuation and Capitals, etc. No composition is complete 
unless its punctuation and capitals are correct. The details can- 
not be enumerated here. The instructor in composition must 
study these matters in some treatise on Rhetoric. The same 
holds true of instruction in Prosody. 

Effective Finish. The removal of imperfections that were 
not noticed in writing out the composition, is termed Finish. 
It corres|)onds to the process denoted by the same name in the 
mechanical arts, such as architecture, sculpture, etc. Effective 
finish is the removal of all those crudities and blemishes that 
offend good taste. 

Principles of Instruction. The principles of instruction, 
as stated in the chapter devoted to that purpose, are applica- 
ble to all branches of study. Several of them (the Second and 
Tenth) need to be emphasized in their application to composi- 
tion. From the Second Principle of Instruction we derive the 
following modified form : The learner should be led to see 
how talking and writing are related. From the Tenth Prin- 
ciple of Instruction we derive the following modified forms : 
(1) Instruction in the art of language should precede instruc- 
tion in the science of language ; (2) The art of language should 
be perfected by the science of language ; and (3) The courses 
of instruction in language should be graded from the simple to 
the complex. 

1. The learner should be led to see how talking and vyriiing are 
related. Children are inclined to think that composing is en- 
tirely different from talking, and fur more difficult. This 
notion often causes them to dread composition, and to be un- 
natural in their attempts to compose. It is therefore quite 
important to correct all such notions. The pupils must be 



COMPOSITION 133 

made to see first of all that it is possible to write thoughts as 
well as to talk thoughts, and that writiug and talking are 
somewhat equivalent as modes of expressing thoughts. This 
point cleared up, it becomes evident to pupils that composing 
is not an attempt to say what they do not know or cannot 
think, but just the opposite. The relation of talking and 
writing is best taught by requiring pupils to talk their thoughts 
before writing them, and to write them just as they would talk 
them. 

2. Instruction in the art of language should precede instruc- 
tion in the science of language. Unlettered people express their 
thoughts in speech and writing without thinking of parts of 
speech, rules of grammar, requirements of rhetoric, etc. Homer 
wrote the Iliad without a knowledge of these requirements. It 
is true enough, however, that such attempts are often crude 
and imperfect. The desire to improve language as a vehicle 
of thought, ])rompted inquiry into the structure of words, sen- 
tences, etc. And thus in time the laws of language were ascer- 
tained. In other words, the science of language was developed 
from the art of language. Thus it becomes evident that in- 
struction in the art of language should precede instruction in 
the science of language. Indeed, this has become the govern- 
ing principle in the construction of modern text-books on 
grammar, rhetoric, etc. The introductory courses in these 
branches are designed to develop imitative faculty in composi- 
tion rather than critical insight. 

3. Tlie art of language should be perfected by the science of 
language. Imitative faculty in com])()sition is an inestimable 
attainment, but critical insight is the necessary complement of 
imitative faculty. In other words, the composer who can jus- 
tify his imitations and correct imperfections by reference to 
principles, is a superior workman. If, for example, a pupil 
should punctuate a sentence as he has seen it punctuated, and 
then give the reasons ; or, if he can correct errors in sentences, 



184 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

and give the reasons according to grammar and rhetoric, he is 
certainly more fortunate than a pupil who can only imitate 
sentences, etc., without knowing the reasons or the principles 
of language involved. It is evident, therefore, that a knowl- 
edge of grammar, rhetoric, etc., are indispensable to mastery 
in composition. Accordingly, the pupil should in due time 
be led to see these principles, and to govern himself by them. 
In short, the art of language should be perfected by the science 
of language. 

4. The courses of instruction in language sJiould be graded 
from the simple to the complex. According to the Tenth Prin- 
ciple of Instruction, introductory courses, as well as subsequent 
courses in any study, should require the learner to supplement 
his observations by induction and deduction. There are two 
governing considerations in the correct application of this prin- 
ciple : (1) The stages of mental development should be ascer- 
tained and respected. These stages of comparatively greater 
functional activity and aptitude are, (1) The perceptive stage, 
(2) The conceptive stage (memory, imagination, and general- 
ization), and (3) The reflective stage (induction, deduction). 
The teacher should ascertain the particular mental epoch at 
which his pupil has arrived, and then adjust the tasks which 
he assigns. In the perceptive epoch, for example, the exer- 
cises in composition should not demand too much generaliza- 
tion, and very little reflection. In the conceptive epoch the 
tasks may become somewhat more abstract, and in the reflec- 
tive epoch they should require inductive discovery of the prin- 
ciples of composition and deductive conformity, as well as logi- 
cal reflection on the subject of composition. (2) There should 
be a progressive transition from sinijile to complex tasks in 
composition. It is not enough that the adjustments recognize 
perceptive, conceptive, and reflective epochs in composition, 
and the relative preponderance of one aptitude over others in 
each epoch. There must be a further adjustment within each 



COMPOSITION 185 

of these adjustments. The perceptive tasks, for example, must 
be easy at first, and then more and more difficult. The same 
prudence in assigning conceptive and reflective tasks is desira- 
ble. In short, the courses of instruction in composition should 
be graded from the simple to the complex. The following 
courses are designed to satisfy these needs. 

I. ELEMENTARY COURSE. 

The tasks assigned to this course are intended for children 
between the ages of six and twelve. It will be observed that 
more perceptive activity is required at first, and then in- 
creasingly more conceptive effort, but only a minimum of re- 
flective attention. (First Principle of Instruction.) The tasks 
are also more simple in themselves at first and more complex 
at last. (Tenth Principle of Instruction.) These elementary 
exercises need not come in the order here adopted, but should 
be gradually so combined that every subsequent composition 
will require the pupil to use all his previous attainments. It 
should be remembered that the Elementary Course, as also the 
Intermediate and Higher Courses, as here outlined, are only 
outlines, and that they need to be supplemented by the teacher 
in many ways. 

1. Writing the names of objects. As soon as children can 
write they should be required to write the names of objects : 
the names of objects in the school-room ; objects to be found 
on the school-grounds ; objects observed on the way to school ; 
objects observed at home, etc. There should be system in this 
exercise from the beginning. The names may be written in 
columns, or in series, as follows : 

1. Paul. 

2. mother. 

3. eyes. Or : Paul, mother, eyes, slate, dog. 

4. slate. 

5. dog. 



186 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

Proper care should be taken of neatness, spelling, numbers, 
periods, commas, capitals, etc., as the pupil can understand 
these matters. The pupil will need constant supervision. 

2. Writing the names of actions. The pupil should be re- 
quired to write the names of actions ; the names of ten things 
that a frog, an owl, a bee, a mouse, a storm, or a cloud, have 
been observed to do. This should be done according to the 
directions that apply to writing the names of objects. 

3. Writing simple sentences. The pupil should be required 
to write the names of objects joined to the names of their 
actions ; as. Birds fly ; The cat mews ; A cloud moves. The 
name of the object may be given, and the pupil required to add 

the name of its action, or vice vei'sa ; as, A fish ; A 

swims. The pupil should be taught to call these sentences 
telling, or Declarative, sentences. As soon as he knows how 
to write these short Declarative sentences, and has formed the 
habit of using the capital and jjcriod correctly, he should learn 
to write asking, or Interrogative sentences ; commanding, or 
Imperative sentences ; and feeling, or Exclamatory sentences. 
Special attention to the diiferences in punctuation is important. 
There should be plenty of practice and correction. 

4. Supplying ellipses in simple sentences. The pupil should 
be required to supply the words wanted in such sentences as 

the following : Mabel lost hat. found my skates. 

The rabbit was killed. Those cakes tasted . Mary 

can run . May I go you ? John, be . 

We saw Dora on the door-step. At first the pupil should 

not know tlie words to be supplied as pronouns, adjectives, ad- 
verbs, prepositions, j)articii)les, etc., but only as words needed 
to complete the sentences. In due time tlio offices of the vari- 
ous parts of speech can be taught by means of such ellipses. 

5. Constructing simple sentences containing given tvords or 
phrases. Tlie ])upil should be required to construct simple 
sentences containing given words or phrases. At first the sen- 



COMPOSITION 187 

tences should contain only one given word or phrase. The 
words or phrases to be used may be written on the black- 
board, and referred to the pupils. At first the pupil should 
construct the sentences orally, in order that he may see what 
is required of him in writing. When two or more words are 
to be used, the teacher must select very carefully, so as not to 
make the task too difficult at first. Phrases should not be in- 
troduced until the pupil has acquired considerable skill with 
words. 

6. Copying and imitating sentences containing capitals, abbre- 
viations, and punctuation, etc. When the pupil has acquired 
satisfactory skill in constructing simple sentences that require 
only final punctuation, and an occasional comma, he should 
be introduced to simple sentences that require a number of 
punctuation marks, abbreviations, and capitals. In due time 
complex, and finally compound sentences, should be studied, 
the mode of procedure being imitative. 

The teacher may write suitable sentences on the black-board, 
explain the punctuation marks, capitals, abbreviations, etc., 
that occur, require the pupils to explain these matters as well 
as they can, and tlien to copy the sentences, first at sight, but 
afterwards from memory, until they can do so without awk- 
wardness or blunder. The pupils should be required to imi- 
tate these copied sentences, i.e., to write original sentences in 
which the punctuation, etc., is like that of the copied sen- 
tences. Parts of complex and compound sentences may also 
be given, and the pupils requii'ed to complete them ; as, If 

Jane had not returned, . While 

the house burned down. " A wise son maketh a glad 

father : but ." 



The tasks here proposed require the teacher to understand 
grammar and rhetoric. It is not maintained that these exer- 
cises should be continued in an unbroken series until the whole 
ground has been covered, but only that such a course ought to 



188 PKINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

be finishnd in due time and aca)rding to clrcti instances. The 
more difficult lessons in punctuation, quotation, abbreviation, 
etc., should evidently be deferred until grammar and rhetoric 
are tak(!n up in th(; regular way. The teaxjher should see to 
it that the tasks which he assigns at this stage in composition 
necessitate perceptive and recollective attention, and concrete 
judgment, but not much reflective effort, and very little origi- 
nal effort. 

7. Copyinf/ and eorreeUv// pof^ma. While pupils are study- 
ing punctuation, abbreviation, quotjition, and ca})itals, as indi- 
cat(;d, they should also copy and correct poems. At first suit- 
able poems should be copied from books put into the pupil's 
hand. Afterwards the teaclier should dictate concrete ])oems, 
and rec^uire the children to <'0])y these, taking care to get the 
lines, capitals, marks, etc., right. WIksu these exercises have 
become easy, ])oc!ms whose punctuation marks, capitals, etc., 
are incorrect, should be corrected by the pupils. Such ac- 
counts of corrections as the pupils can give should be required, 
and the teacher should tok-ratf! no guessing. In due time the 
more conspicuous distinctions b(!tw{!en pros(! and poetry should 
be studied ; but technical distinctions and abstractions should 
be reserved for the rhetoric class. 

8. ComraUtiru/ and reciting choice Hclection^ of prose and 
poetry. In all the grades of our schools, the pupils should be 
rciquired to commit and nicitc choice sek.'ctions of prose and 
poetry. Only su(;h extracits as, by reason of their literary and 
moral exc(!ll(!uce, des(!rve to bec/)me jwrmanent mental ])osses- 
sions, should be committtsd by the jMipils. The teacher should 
not allow these extracts to b(; recited in parrot fashion, but 
tliouglitfiilly. This thoiiglilCuIncss will become a habit, if 
questions must b(! answered by the pupil in connection with 
th(! recitations. The practice*' hen; u(lv()(!ated " will cultivate! 
a literary taste, which lies at the basis of all artistic excellence 
in the use of language." 



COMPOSITION 189 

9. Crmstructinf/ wifjimd Hcalcnom cf/idaininf/ rxijAtah, pundvy- 
alujTUi, ahhreolatio'iiii, qaotatioim, do. "Jlie cxcrciHCH described 
in tiie foregoing jiaragruphs, required very little original think- 
ing. In w^nnoction witli tlioHe imitative lesHons, e<jrrcHj)ondirig 
original tasks should Ik; assigned. Tlicse original tasks siiould 
increase in difficulty with tiie increasing maturity of the pupil. 
As in the imitative lessons, and parallel with the stages of their 
difficulty, so in these original tasks, the seiitena;s should at first 
be only simple in species; but all the varieties of punctuation, 
etc., should be cultivated. The pupils should 1k' led to see how 
a number of* sc])arate, but related sentenc(;s, can be reduced to 
one sentence, either simple, complex, or compound. When 
the pupils have observed the teacher doing so, they may ha 
required to do the same with analogous sentences, orally at 
first, and then in writing. When it seems the right time U) 
cultivate originality in ajmplex and a>mpound sent(;nr;es, the 
teacher should take great pains to lead the pu[)ils to see what 
is wanted. Moreover, it is of the utmost importance to secure 
the interest of the pu])ils. l*ati<;nt ])racti<;e i/i ctnistructing 
original Hent(infx;s, simple, complex, and wmpound, is the in- 
disp(;nsable [)reparatory course in comj)Osition. 

10. Writiwj ifimple leUera. Long before the [)r(;ceding ex- 
ercises can ho required in full, probably as soon as pupils have 
ac(|uired considerable skill in constructing simple sentences, 
simple letters should be writtf^n. The teacher should first lead 
the child U) see what a letter is. This can be done by writing 
illustrative letters on the blackboard, and explaining the j)arts. 
The letters of children, as jxiblishcd in educational p<!riodicals 
and elsewhere, may also be read to them and inspected by them. 
When properly supervised, pupils will soon bew)me quite skil- 
ful in writing aa^)unts of personal expericna;, d(;scriptions of 
visits, etc. They should be enwjuraged to write to their rela- 
tives and friends, exjiressing their thoughts just as they would 
if they were conversing with them i'ncAi t(; face. The arrange- 



190 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

ment of the letter, the construction of sentences, the punctua- 
tion, the spelling, etc., should be as perfect as possible. The 
corrected letters should be copied and preserved in a book. 

11. Describing objects. Pupils should be required to ob- 
serve some object critically, and then to describe it truthfully. 
Sometimes children cannot think of all that they know about 
something. By means of appropriate questions, the child may 
be led to think of his knowledge, and to discover more than 
he could find out unaided. Children should also be required 
to describe absent objects, or phenomena, such as a meadow, a 
sunset, a wagon, a chestnut tree, a rabbit, etc. These exer- 
cises develop accuracy and vigor in descriptive composition ; 
and, in helping to establish the habit of critical observation, 
they equip the pupil for subsequent investigations. Attention 
to the thoughts to be expressed often causes the novice in com- 
position to forget the requirements of grammar, rhetoric, and 
penmanship, etc. Such carelessness should not be tolerated at 
any time. 

12. Describing actions. Pupils should be required to ob- 
serve actions critically, and then to describe them truthfully. 
The actions of a child, the movements of a horse, the perform- 
ance of a trick, the confusions of an accident, etc., are suitable 
subjects. Properly supervised, children will not only enjoy 
these exercises, but acquire great al)ility in such description. 
Appropriate questions are as important in these tasks as in the 
description of objects. It may also be required of pupils at 
this stage to write newspaper paragraphs. In order to show 
the pupils what is wanted, the teacher may bring a newspaper 
to school and read such paragraphs as will interest them, and 
then require them to write little items in imitation of those in 
the paper. In due time descriptions of current events should 
follow. Accounts of floods, fires, storms, parades, conventions, 
elections, inventions, discoveries, etc., are appropriate for older 
pupils. 



COMPOSITION 191 

13. Describing pictures and basing stories on pictures. A 
picture, as it is well known, appeals not only to the eye, but 
also to the imagination of children. Pictures are accordingly 
of great value in language lessons. The pupils should be re- 
quired to observe a picture critically, and then to tell what 
may be seen. Sometimes it may be necessary to ask questions 
in order to lead the observer to find what is to be found. In- 
asmuch as pictures appeal to the imagination, they may be em- 
ployed to suggest stories. The children will readily invent 
such stories provided the teacher starts the process and pre- 
serves the thread by means of skilful questions and suggestions. 
Appropriate pictures may be found in school-books, or brought 
by teacher and pupils. The teacher should see to it that only 
such pictures are used as are sesthetically and morally fi:t. 

14. Writing anecdotes and narratives. There is magic in 
anecdotes and narratives. The young mind loves them ; the 
old mind lives in them. The power to relate anecdotes and to 
tell stories, is a most effective equipment in teaching language 
lessons. There are three stages to observe in teaching anec- 
dotes and stories : (1) At first the teacher should relate the 
anecdote or tell the story, the pupils listening attentively all 
through the procedure. Then the pupil, assisted by questions, 
if that be necessary, should repeat the substance of the anecdote 
or story, orally at first, and then in writing. (2) Anecdotes 
and stories may be told in short sentences, either orally or in 
writing. When the teacher has thus put the pupils on the 
track, they should be required to expand these short sentences, 
supplying what seems necessary to complete the structure. 
(3) To older pupils only an outline should be submitted, and 
they should be required to construct the story themselves. 
This last task is quite difficult, inasmuch as it requires concep- 
tive and inventive effort ; but the exercise brings excellent 
results. 

Note. The incomparable stories of Grimm, Hans Christian 



192 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

Andersen, and other writers of stories for children, should be 
studied by teachers, in order to imbibe the inspiration that 
ought to belong to this species of instruction. 

II. INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 

(1) In the Elementary Course the stress was laid on per- 
ceptive and recoUective efforts. The conceptions required in 
that course were concrete. Inventive and reflective efforts, re- 
quired within limits, were attentively supervised and greatly 
assisted. (2) The Intermediate Course continues to require 
the efforts of the Elementary Course, but introduces abstract 
activity, and lays stress on reflective and inventive efforts. 
Less assistance is offered to the pupil, and he is required to 
depend a great deal upon his OAvn resources. There is a tran- 
sition from advisory to corrective and critical supervision. 
The course is intended for pupils between twelve and eighteen 
years of age. In graded schools, the Intermediate Course 
should be completed sooner. 

1. Wtiting the substance of reading lessons. It is an excel- 
lent plan to require pupils to write the substance of their 
reading lessons. This task may be required as a preparation 
for intellectual reading, or as a direct exercise in composition 
at stated times, say once or twice a week. There are several 
merits in the exercise here advocated : (1) It promotes intel- 
lectuality in reading ; and (2) It renders the transition from 
the concrete to the abstract in composition easier. The second 
result follows for three reasons : (a) The reading lesson fur- 
nishes thoughts for composition ; (b) It furnished language ; 
and (c) It furnishes thread or plan for the composition. 

2. Writing the recitations in geography, history, observation 
lessons, etc. Sometimes, if the class be small, the pupils may 
be required to write instead of talk their recitations in geog- 
raphy, history, etc. If the class be large, some members may 
write theu' recitations while others recite orally. Apart from, 



COMPOSITION 193 

and in addition to, its direct benefit to geography, history, etc., 
this practice is an excellent exercise in composition. It re- 
quires reflective as well as perceptive and recollective atten- 
tion ; it cultivates conceptive ability in composition ; and it 
tends to develop the habit of expressing thoughts in classical 
language. Remissness in spelling, punctuation, capitals, apos- 
trophes, etc., ought by no means to be tolerated. 

3. Synopsis of lessons in reading, geography, history, etc. 
Anatomically considered, a lesson is body and soul, as a man 
is body and soul. The body in both cases is the soul's means 
of revelation. It is an excellent exercise to discover the sJcele- 
ton of this body in lessons assigned to pupils. It is through 
analysis that this discovery must be made. As soon as a pupil 
becomes able to analyze his lessons in reading, history, etc., 
into their skeletons, he is prepared to plan skeletons of his own 
for compositions of his own. He will then also understand 
and appreciate synopses. Teachers should therefore require 
pupils to analyze their lessons until the ability to do so de- 
velops into habit and inventive tendency. These synopses 
should be written on paper, slate, or board, and then criticised 
and improved. 

4. Writing all sorts of letters. When the pupil has arrived 
at a proper age, he should be required to write all sorts of let- 
ters. The species of letters to be cultivated in the common 
schools are as follows : (1) Letters of Friendship, (2) Letters 
of Business, (3) Official Letters, (4) Didactic Letters, (5) Let- 
ters of Introduction, (6) News Letters, (7) Notes of Invitation 
and Acceptance, (8) Excuses, (9) Applications. To this list 
might be added Legal Papers, such as Promissory- Notes, Due 
Bills, Checks, etc. 

Models should be studied, and imitated with intelligence. 
The parts of a letter should be understood in all their varieties 
and proprieties. It is to be deplored that so many boys and 
girls cannot write neat and sensible letters when they quit 

13 



194 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

school. It should be considered discreditable to teachers if 
they fail to train their proteges in these matters. The first 
necessity in performing this duty is to study some standard 
author on letter writing. The teacher who fails to do this 
cannot do good work. Westlake's little book on " How to 
Write Letters," or, Hill's " Elements of Rhetoric and Compo- 
sition," is recommended. 

5. Converting poetry into prose, and proverbs into essays. 
The poets give us great thoughts in " verse." Philosophers 
condense the wisdom of the world into concise sentences termed 
proverbs. (1) For pupils whose ability to reflect has been 
sufiiciently matured, the effort to convert verse into prose is a 
most effective exercise in composition. In this exercise the 
poet's thoughts and words become the pupil's thoughts and 
words, but the structure of prose is required to be original. 
The literary taste thus developed becomes original tendency 
and habit in the pupils. (2) The effort to expand a proverb 
into an essay is a very excellent exercise in abstract and re- 
flective composition. It requires keen analysis to pierce to 
the core of many proverbs, and constructive effort, abstract 
and reflective, to expand them into essays. Thus it follows 
that the practice of converting poetry into prose, and proverbs 
into essays, develops that comprehensive understanding which 
is so much to be coveted in mature compositions. Teachers 
should therefore collect and grade appropriate poems and 
proverbs for the purposes indicated. 

6. Elementary lessons in diction, sentence-qualities, and figures 
of rhetoric. A regular training in rhetoric may be out of the 
question for many common schools ; but older boys and girls 
should certainly know the desirable qualities of vocabulary and 
sentences, and the common figures of rhetoric. The following 
exercises are recommended : (1) The pupils should be required 
to observe illustrative sentences, in order to discover how the 
desirable qualities of vocabulary and sentences are secured, 



COMPOSITION 195 

and in order to see the force of rhetorical figures. (2) The 
pupils should be required to commit such representative sen- 
tences as will subsequently serve for models. (3) The pupils 
should be required to construct sentences in imitation of those 
which have been studied as models. (4) Original sentences 
should be criticised and corrected. Reference to dictionaries 
and rhetorics will be necessary. The teacher should under- 
stand his business. 

7. Original Exercises. A time should come when pupils 
should depend almost altogether on their own resources in com- 
position. (Eighth Principle of Instruction.) Adequate super- 
vision must, however, prepare for this emancipation in com- 
position. In other words, pupils in original composition need 
a teacher's instructions and suggestions in the following tasks : 

(1) The Selection of Subjects; (2) The Cumulation of Mate- 
rials ; (3) The Acquisition of Vocabulary ; (4) The Acquisi- 
tion of Style ; (5) The Plan of Construction ; (6) The Con- 
struction of the Composition ; and (7) The Finish. The 
teacher's duties and the right modes of procedure, are as 
follows : 

(1) The Selection of Subjects. The governing considerations 
in the selection of subjects have already been noticed. (See 
page 179.) It is evident that only mature minds can select 
subjects in accordance with these requirements. Therefore it 
devolves on the teacher to select subjects for young pupils. 
If young pupils are allowed to select subjects for composition, 
the following results are likely: (1) Impropriety of choice; 

(2) Waste of time by embarrassment ; and (3) Plagiarism. 
On the other hand, if pupils are not required to rely on 

their own best judgment in selecting subjects, their individu- 
ality will be sacrificed. This result must be avoided. In 
order to avoid this sacrifice, several appropriate subjects should 
be selected by the teacher and proposed to the class. The 
teacher should ask questions and converse with the pupils on 



JIK; FMaNCIPLKS and MKTTI0I>>H ok TFOAf.TIING 

thoHC Hiibjoois, until they can dioosc; for tlicniHolvcH. Two 
points firo tliiiH guinfifl : (1) Tho piipil'H IndcjKindftnw in not, 
H;u;ririf/'<l, fjui Ih'h iri(Jivi<iiialit,y i'h cuIfivJitrd, (2) Irit/;n;Ht, in 
\}\(: <:\\(>H<'.n Hnl)J(^.*t IH Htifriiilut/'xl, and td*; [)iij)il will perform 
liiH la;Hl< with cncrp^y and jiiirpow;. 

In <\n(: tirno, of" courHc, ilif; pupil hIkiiiM Ik; nrjiiintd to 
H<:](:<:i liin own KuhJ(!d,H in fwx'/^rdancc with th^- ^';ov<'rninK 
oonsidoratioriH. Hut, (;v(;n nialnn; [)H[)ilH may hf; nrjiiircd to 
write on Huhjects asHi^nod by the teaelier, (;Hf)eeially in f;a.s<;H 
when thccx)rnpoHitionH arc to ha conHidcrwl aH evident; of pro- 
fi<;i(!ney in Konif: (Jef)arlmr;nt of Htudy. Gradnalin}^ theseH are 
iJhiHtrationH. In Hiiel» eawiH the Htudentn Hhonld he refpilred 
to Hehiet Hnhj(!etH, liand th(!m in according to aj)f)ointment, 
and ar^Xipt tiie ap])roval of thf; teaclier. The propriety of thJH 
f^jijrHe i.s f>})vionH : (1) f)(«iral>le variety of Hnljjeets in Heenrrtd ; 
(2) 'fhe liahilify of pla^iariHm is h^wtned ; and {l'») "^rhf; indi- 
vidii;ilily of the (nipil iH ^nardfid against f)OH8ible f»ij)riee. 

I'upiJK should Ik; faufrht to stat-*-, tJir; Huhjeetof a eoni[)OHil,ion 
in the moKt fitting wordn. (JoneiHeneHH and prec^inion Klif»nld 
l)e cultivated. Tliougli attnwitivencss of Htatcmcnt is effective, 
it Hhonld nevr he att(!m})ted at the Hacrifia; of true dignity 
and Himplieity. 

'^rh(! ability to adjuHt HubjeetH to the preHent powns of tfie 
y)Uf)il, in tx) be; greatly (tovetcd by the tc/dclicr. On Imh huccchs 
in thiH tank, will d(!pend the degree; of intentHt in eomjioHition 
and liiH eoriHefjuent Kn<^!eeHH as a t/'ach(!r of <!oniposition. TIk; 
teacher that failn in the tank oi' HuperviHing the selw-'tion of 
Hiibjeefx, will mak(! his pupils liat,«; eomposition. This hatred 
iH g(!n(;rally filial. 

(2) (hrni'ukdion of MaterialH. Tlu; governing W)nHid(Ta- 
tioriH in the eunuilation of ideas, tlir)UghtH, Hentimentn, ef^;., 
have alifiady been nofjeed. (See page J79). It devolves on 
the teacher tx) (!idtivat(! ob(!di{!nex! t/) these recpiirementH on thr; 
part of the pupils. Tlie poHsible modes of cumulating mato 



COMPOSITION 197 

rials for composition are as follows : (1) Obsorvation, (2) Con- 
versation, (3) Roadinj^, (4) Juiaf^ination, and (5) RoiU'cium. 

Within the domain of the pupil's past and possible ex- 
perience, the teacher must insist on Observation as the first 
source of ideas. The experiences of others may be ascertained 
by Conversatifm ; or, if that Ixi impra(;tieable, by lieadinf/. 
The habit of Imarjiniwj pcirsonaj^es, plac(;s, events, experi- 
ences, possibilities, etc., should be cultivated in pupils. It 
was this habit of pnvin^ "to airy nothings a local habita- 
tion and a name," that made Shak(,'speaie and Dickens such 
charming writers. Pupils should, however, be taught to Re- 
flect as well as i/) obs(;rve, converse, read, and imagine. The 
habit of forming opinions should be encouraged. The ability 
to discover causes, laws, and effects, should be develo])ed in 
older pupils. Taste for sciencxj and philosof)liy should be 
8timulat<jd in caj)able students as soon as th(;y becfjme mature 
enough. Comprehensive scholarship, maturity of thought, 
and refinement in taste, are proper ideals in adult composers. 

(3) llie Acquinition of Vocabulary. The first nec^;ssity in 
composition is "something to say"; but it is thrrjugh lan- 
guage that this something must be said. Therefore it is 
necessary t^> acfpiire a voeal)ii]ary and the ability U) fjfjnstruct 
suitable sc^ntetices. There are various ways of increasing and 
improving one's vocabulary. Among others are the follow- 
ing : (1) Association, (2) Lists of Words, (3) Use of the 
Dictionary, (4) Reading, (5) Translating, and (6) Choirxi of 
Words. 

The words used by associates tend to cling to memory, as 
burrs cling to a dress. This is especially tnie of children, 
who often surprise us by their use of words "just picked up 
anywhere." Indeed, it is possible for a child to learn to con- 
verse in several languages before it fx>rnes t^j sf;hool at all, pro- 
vid(!d it has the op[)ortimity to hear these languages and us<j 
them. The child whost; teacher and other associates use a 



198 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

large and choice vocabulary will acquire this vocabulary as if 
by instinct. It is a serious misfortune to associate with peo- 
ple who are careless in speaking, or to attend a school whose 
teacher cannot talk. 

It is a good plan to make and keep a list of the neiv loords 
met in lessons, general reading, conversation, speeches, etc. 
This habit should be formed in early youth, and kept up 
through life. The words thus catalogued and looked up in 
the dictionary, should be used in speaking and composing. 
Frequent review will keep these words at the end of our 
fingers and tongue. In this way our vocabulary, which is 
much smaller than most people suspect, can be greatly in- 
creased and permanently improved. 

It is to be deplored that so many pupils neglect to look for 
the meanings and uses, as well as the pronunciation, of the 
words which they meet in their books and elsewhere, and it is 
even more dei)l()rable that so many teachers do not insist on 
this habit both in themselves and in their pupils. If it be 
within his means, every student should own some standard 
dictionary, and make it his constant comi)anion in study. 
" This was the habit of some of the most accomplished schol- 
ars and writers. Charles Sumner was a most assiduous stu- 
dent of the dictionary. He had several copies in his library in 
constant use, and usually carried a pocket edition with him ; 
and they were found, after his death, to be the most thumbed 
of any of his books. Lord Chatham went twice through the 
largest English dictionary, studying the meaning of each word 
and its various uses." 

In order to acquire a precise and copious vocabulary, the 
student must read the masters in English literature, such as 
Addison, Washington Irving, Tennyson, etc. These masters 
put meanings into words and phrases, whose delicate shades 
the ordinary mind would never even suspect. The disciple 
of such masters cannot but improve at their feet. 



COMPOSITION 199 

Apart from the fact that translatinr/ foreign lanrjuagen, espe- 
cially the classic Greek and Latin, tends to make studenls 
idealists, it increases and improves their English vocabulary. 
The translator must consult a lexicon in order to find the 
corresponding English words into which a foreign word may 
be translated, and then, from a numl>er (jf alternatives, he 
must select that English word which will best express the 
meaning of the foreign word. It is in this way that his Eng- 
lish vocabulary increases and improves, even if he should in a 
short time forget all the foreign words. 

The pupil should be taught to itrcfer short ivords to long 
words. It is not a ViUivary sin to use long words when short 
words cannot be found or when these do not express the in- 
tended meanings ; but the impression that long words indi- 
cate profundity of mind, is a delusion which the teacher 
should dispel as soon as possible. There should be a severe 
simplicity in our choice of words. Th(! Anglo-Saxon vocab- 
ulary, of whirh the English Bil)le, as w<!ll as " Pilgrim's Prog- 
ress" and " Iiol>inson Crusoe," are good examples, is fiir more 
expressive, and far less cumbersome, than the corresponding 
words d(!rived from foreign languages. 

(4) The Acquisition of Htyle. A large and expressive vocab- 
ulary is a most desirable acquisition, but it must be suj)j)le- 
mented by the ability to construct sentences according to the 
rules of grammar and rhetoric. There arr; varitjus ways of 
acquiring an effective English style. The following practices 
are recommended : (1) General reading, (2) Copying the sen- 
tences of the Masters, (3) Committing choi(;e extracts of prose 
and poetry ; and (4) Declaiming choice selections. 

Pupils who read a great deal are usually better a^mposcrs 
than other puj)ils, however bright the latt<^;r may be. The 
practice of copying sentences makes their structure familiar 
and in time impresses the style on the one who copies them. 
The practice of committing is still more impressive, inasmuch 



200 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

as the amount of effort is greater in committing than in copy- 
ing. The old practice of declaiming on Friday afternoons is 
a good practice. The prospect of an audience, and the desire 
to deserve praise, stimulate an intensity in committing selec- 
tions, that will impress them deeply. 

(5) The Plan of Construction. The governing considera- 
tions in planning a composition have already been noticed. 
(See page 180.) It is the teacher's duty to lead the way in 
this task of his pupils, as well as in other tasks. The impor- 
tance of outlines should be pointed out, and the habit of 
making them should be developed in pupils in due time. The 
formation of outlines is a very awkward business at first ; but, if 
wisely superintended, it soon becomes a pleasure. The teacher 
can do the following things : (1) He can teach the pupils how 
to ask themselves questions on some subject, such as Frogs, or 
Stars. (2) He can teach the pupils how to convert these ques- 
tions into an outline. (3) He can write out a composition 
according to outline, while the pupils observe him. In this 
way they will see what use to make of an outline. (4) He 
can revise outlines formed by the pupils, showing them where 
they went wrong, and how to avoid the mistake in the future. 

There should be a great deal of practice in the formation 
of outlines. An outline lesson may sometimes take the place 
of a composition, the pupils being required to construct the 
outlines on the board, slates, or paper, and corrections follow- 
ing according to the teacher's judgment. 

(6) Writing the Composition. The form-features in the 
structure of a composition were described on page 177. It 
devolves on the teacher to insist on these matters. The pupils 
should be led to see just what is wanted, and also the impor- 
tance of strictness in these form-features of a composition. 
Carelessness in the mechanical execution of a composition is 
not only an offense to good taste ; it also renders the completed 
structure an imperfect vehicle of thought. 



COMPOSITION 201 

The teacher should try to develop in his pupils the habit of 
writing at times and under circumstances that are most appro- 
priate to the task of writing. The habit of " brooding over" 
a subject until thoughts come and flow, should be encouraged. 
The writer should be taught how, by means of questions put 
to himself, he may work himself into the mood to write, and 
he should be encouraged to take true pride in the power to say 
things worth saying. Pupils should be led to see how impor- 
tant it is to write a composition over again and again until it 
becomes as concise and precise as it should be, and until the 
various requirements of grammar, rhetoric, and logic, have 
been met. Young writers are loth to destroy their first prod- 
ucts, fondly believing that it will break their heart to give up 
anything they have said. This delusion must be corrected. 

(7) Correction. The necessity of corrective supervision over 
pupils in composition, was noticed on page 179. The imper- 
fections in the compositions of beginners should be corrected 
by the teacher himself. The corrections should be explained to 
pupils, care being taken not to discourage the writers. The 
compositions should then be read by the pupils, and copied in 
a suitable book for future reference. 

In the case of older pupils the teacher should adopt a sys- 
tem of abbreviations by which to indicate necessary corrections. 
The pupils should understand these abbreviations, or symbols, 
thoroughly, and make the corrections accordingly. The cor- 
rected compositions should be read by the writer, at such time 
as the teacher may appoint, after which they should be copied 
in a suitable book for future reference. The preservation of 
compositions will develop the habit of comparing former and 
later products, thus serving as a stimulus to better efforts. The 
day on which the compositions are read should be a frequent 
and welcome day in every school. The inventive teacher will 
throw great interest into the exercises of " Composition Day," 
converting dull routine into a literary feast. The exercises of 



202 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

" Composition Day" may include all the exercises of a good 
literary society, the pupils being members and officers. 



III. HIGHER COURSE. 

In this course the student is required to aim at perfection in 
his art. He must try to find subjects that have something 
characteristic in them, and develop them in harmony with the 
principles of thought and language. He must try to appro- 
priate the inspirations of the Masters in literature, but develop 
his own individuality to the utmost. Every composition must 
be subjected to scientific criticism. (Hill's "Elements of 
Ehetoric and Composition," pages 135 to 160.) It is the 
function of such a course to develop authors, journalists, 
teachers of literature, ministers, lecturers, etc. 

The requisites of higher composition are as follows: (1) 
Criticism of the Masterpieces of English literature ; (2) In- 
quiry into the relations of thought and language ; (3) The ap- 
plication of principles of the relations of thought and language ; 
and (4) Criticism of original compositions. 

IV. IMPORTANCE OF COMPOSITION. 

The art of composition deserves the most earnest cultiva- 
tion. The results of practice in composition are as follows : 
(1) The Functional Improvement of the Mind ; (2) Increase 
of Knowledge ; and (3) Practical Equipment. 

Functional Improvement of the Mind. The selection 
of subjects, the accumulation of materials, the invention of plan 
of construction, the completion of the structure, the critical re- 
vision, the correction, etc., require all the possible species of 
mental activity. (See " Mental Activity.") All the ends of 
mental development may be attained in composition ; namely, 
(1) Greater functional activity ; (2) Greater functional power ; 
(3) Right habits ; and (4) Correct tastes. 



COMPOSITION 203 

Increase of Knowledge. In composition there must be 
" something to say" and language with which to say it. The 
acquisition of ideas, thoughts, vocabulary, style, etc., is there- 
fore a necessity. Thus practice in composition necessitates in- 
crease in knowledge. The knowledge acquired is derived from 
all the domains of thought, according to the supervision of the 
teacher, or the preference of the pupil. 

Practical Equipment. Skill in composition is a valuable 
equipment in the affairs of life. The ability to write a letter 
is a commercial advantage and a social accomplishment. In- 
deed, the master in composition is able to live by his art, and 
is a prince among men. Journalism, authorship, etc., are 
among the most powerful agencies in modern civilization. 



204 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

CHAPTER VII. 

GRAMMAR. 

The true object of instruction is to cause right mental 
processes in pupils. (See the Principles of Instruction.) It 
is obvious that, in order to cause the right mental processes in 
teaching any branch of study, the teacher must know those 
processes. Therefore, the pedagogics of grammar is concerned 
with two general topics : (1) The Nature of Grammar ; and 
(2) Instruction in Grammar. 

A. THE NATURE OP GRAMMAR. 
The nature of grammar is most conveniently studied under 
three heads : (1) The Subject of Grammar ; (2) The Psychology 
of Grammar ; and (3) The History of Grammar. 

I. THE "SUBJECT" OF GRAMMAR. 

In the sense in which physiology is the study of the body, 
grammar is the study of " words in sentences." 

Words in Sentences. It is not with isolated woi'ds, but 
with words as parts of sentences that grammar is concerned. 
Differences of function and relation require variations in the 
spelling and placing of words. Therefore, inquiry into these 
differences of function and relation, is the essential to insight 
into the formation of sentences, which insight is the ultimate 
object of grammar. Thus we see that, although grammar 
must encroach upon the domain of orthography, and rise into 
the sphere of prosody, its special territory is a limited domain 
in etymology, enriched by syntax. 

Orthography. Grammar consists of only so mucli orthog- 
raphy as is required in the interest of forming sentences. 
When, for example, the time to which the thought of a sen- 



GRAMMAR 205 

tence is referred, is past, the distinction is denoted by a varia- 
tion in the spelling of the predicate. 

Etymology. In its widest sense etymology is concerned not 
only with the functions of words, but also with their history. 
But grammar is etymology only in so far as it is concerned 
with the functions, properties, and relations of words in sen- 
tences. 

Syntax. The etymology of which grammar consists is en- 
riched by the fact that words are parts of sentences. This 
distinction, indeed, is the justification of grammar as a special 
study. Take, for example, the sentence, " The handsome man 
that rode in the king's chariot, was slain by a woman." In 
this sentence the function, several properties, and a distinctive 
relation of the word " that," are determined by the sentence 
of which it is a logical element. This enriching inquiry into 
the formation of sentences is termed Syntax. 

Rhetoric. Rhetoric is concerned with such problems as 
punctuation, capitalization, diction, sentence-qualities, figures 
of rhetoric, poetry, etc. Inasmuch as punctuation, capitaliza- 
tion, choice of words, and arrangement of the parts of a sen- 
tence, are practically indispensable in the formation of sentences, 
these topics should never be divorced from their connections. 
To this extent grammar employs rhetoric. In due time, 
" composition," i.e., the combination of sentences, brings all 
the higher concerns of rhetoric and logic into grammar. 

II. THE PSYCHOLOGY OF GRAMMAR. 

The ideal method of studying " words in sentences," as well 
as plants or animals, or any other subject, consists of observa- 
tion, induction, and deduction. (See the Tenth Principle of 
Instruction.) 

Observation in Grammar. The first step in the formal 
study of " words in sentences" is observation, i.e., the ascer- 
tainment of facts. The observer in grammar must examine 



206 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

sentences just as observers in botany examine flowers, i.e., he 
must look for parts, properties, relations, etc. In language 
as in other spheres instances are generally individuals of a 
genus, and therefore suggestive of laws. But there are many 
irregularities in language. Therefore the observer should ex- 
amine many instances before he ventures to generalize, lest the 
generalizations have insufficient grounds. If, for example, the 
student of grammar wishes to study pronouns, he must make 
as large a collection of pronouns as possible, and observe them 
as used in sentences. 

Induction in Grammar. The second step in the formal 
study of " words in sentences," is induction, i.e., the ascertain- 
ment of laws. Inasmuch as instances in language are gener- 
ally individuals of a genus, induction begins with the justifi- 
able hypothesis that what was fouud true in particular may 
also be true in general. The distinctive object of induction in 
the larger sense, is to verify such hypotheses. In order to 
accomplish this purpose, the observer must gather sentences 
from all sources and offer them as evidence. Should irregu- 
larities be discovered in the sentences offered, the hypothesis 
must be either corrected or abandoned ; but if all the offered 
sentences confirm the hypothesis, it is accepted as law. If, for 
example, the student of etymological grammar wishes to ascer- 
tain into how many parts of speech the English language must 
be classified, or what case prepositions govern, he gathers evi- 
dences from various sources, proving, as he can in these cases, 
that there are no exceptions to his hypotheses. Proceeding 
in the same way in syntax, he finds that the rule of agreement 
of subject and predicate has several exceptions, which he there- 
fore records, and thus corrects his hypothesis. This method 
of discovery, since it is both historical and rational, is the ideal 
method of ascertaining all the general truths of grammar, 
whether it be in orthography, etymology, syntax, or prosody. 
It should be made the habit of all students. 



GRAMMAR 207 

Deduction in Grammar. The final step in the formal 
study of " words in sentences," is deduction, i.e., the classifi- 
cation of individual words and parts of sentences, and their use 
according to discovered laws. There are three distinct de- 
ductive processes in grammar : (1) Parsing ; (2) Analysis, and 
(3) Construction of Sentences. 

Parsing. The comparison of a sentence-word with the 
concepts of its objective function and relations, i.e., with the 
concepts of etymology, is termed Parsing. The language by 
means of which these deductive explanations are made, re- 
quires many technical terms, such as noun, gender, tense, 
voice, etc. 

Analysis. The comparison of sentence-parts with the con- 
cepts of their logical functions and relations, i.e., with^ the 
concepts of syntax, is termed Analysis. The language of 
these deductive explanations of a sentence, as well as the lan- 
guage of parsing, requires technical terms, such as subject, 
predicate, adjuncts, etc. 

Construction of Sentences. (1) Faulty sentences may be 
corrected, i.e., made to conform with violated laws. Such 
deductive reformation of sentences is commonly known as 
the correction of fahe syntax. (2) Original sentences may 
be constructed in conformity with the laws of grammar. 
Such deductive formation of sentences, the supreme end in 
view in the study of grammar, is commonly known as true 
syntax. 

The Definition of Grammar. The method of study just 
described, together with a systematic statement of truths, con- 
stitutes science. Grammar is therefore a science ; and, since 
its subject is " words in sentences," it is correctly defined as 
the science of " words in sentences," or, simply, the science of 
sentences. But, as a systematic guide to usage, grammar is 
also an art, and may be so defined. Accordingly, grammar is 
the science and art of sentences. 



208 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

III. THE HISTORY OF GRAMMAR. 

The history of grammar is conveniently studied under the 
following heads : (1) The Development of Grammar ; (2) Text- 
Books of Grammar ; and (3) The Popularity of Grammar. 

The Development of Grammar. A complete history of 
developments in grammar, though essential in a course of gen- 
eral grammar, would require too much space for our present 
purpose, and could hardly be justified by the demand. A 
brief account, however, seems necessary at this time. 

The Hindoos and Greeks were the pioneers in grammar. 
(1) " Among the Hindoos the science of grammar arose in im- 
mediate connection with the study and interpretation of their 
sacred books, and served the main purpose of explaining and 
of maintaining in purity of form the ancient or classical lan- 
guage, the Sanskrit, which had ceased to be the language of 
the people and was regarded as the peculiar property of the 
priestly class." (2) Among the Greeks the beginnings of 
grammar are found in the works of the philosophers. The 
parts of speech were partly identified and defined by Aristotle, 
and additions were made by the Stoics. It was not until the 
second century before Christ that Alexandrian scholars devel- 
oped a complete system of Greek grammar. In preparing 
correct texts of the Greek classics, especially of Homer, these 
scholars found that the manuBcripts differed, aud then deter- 
mined the correct form by comparison with the language of 
Homer. (3) Modern developments in grammar consist chiefly 
of expansious, superstructures, rational correlation of depart- 
ments, practical applications, and improvements in presenta- 
tion. The long domination of humanism in education has 
made grammar almost as exact a science as mathematics. 

The Text-Books of G-rammar. Great changes of content 
and method have been introduced into the text-books of gram- 
mar since the time of Zenodotus and Aristarchus, the great 



GRAMMAR 209 

grammarians of Alexandria. The little handbook of Diony- 
sius Thrax, a pupil of Aristarchus, was " the basis for all the 
Greek grammars down almost to modern times," and, through 
its virtual use by Chrysoloras and the Renaissance scholars, it 
determined the traditions of school grammars for all Euro- 
pean languages ; but the old Dionysius became more and more 
portly and precise. The Romans left the science of gram- 
mar largely to Greek scholars. Terence, a contemporary of 
Cicero, is famous for his reports concerning the materials of 
the older Latin and the Italic dialects. An introduction to 
Lilly's Latin Grammar, by John Colet, published in 1510, 
and the exclusive standard in England for more than three 
centuries, was the first attempt at English grammar. In 
1586, William Bullokar wrote an exclusively English gram- 
mar. " In 1758, Bishop Lowth published his celebrated 
grammar, an excellent work from which Lindley Murray 
drew most of his materials. Lindley Murray published his 
first grammar in 1795, and his Abridgement in 1797, a work 
which has been extensively used in this country and in Eng- 
land. This popular work was largely derived from Lowth 
and Priestly, and owed its popularity to its practical adapta- 
tion to the work of the school-room." Goold Brown's gram- 
mar is probably the ablest and most celebrated American work. 
Among the many excellent grammars of our own times are 
those of Dr. Lyte, Dr. Welsh, and others. 

The Popularity of Grammar. From the time of its first 
introduction, grammar has occupied an important place in 
schools. The Renaissance made grammar a necessity, and 
the long domination of humanism in education (see Painter's 
" History of Education") kept " the first of the seven liberal 
arts," first in honor down to modern times. America is not 
far behind in its respectful attitude toward formal grammar. 
It has long been looked upon as the disciplinary study par excel- 
lence, not only in elementary, but also in secondary education. 

14 



210 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

For fuller presentations of the history of grammar, methods- 
students are respectfully referred to Johnson's "Universal 
Cyclopaedia/' "The Cyclopaedia Britannica/' "The Century 
Dictionary," etc. 

B. INSTRUCTION IN GRAMMAR. 

The nature of grammar makes inquiry into the following 
subjects a necessity for teachers of grammar : (1) The Courses 
of Instruction in Grammar ; (2) The Special Objects of the 
Courses; (3) The Subjects of Study; (4) The Methods of 
Instruction ; and (5) The Importance of Grammar. 

I. THE COURSES OF INSTRUCTION IN GRAMMAR. 

The number of necessary adaptations of the subject and 
method of grammar to the powers and needs of pupils, deter- 
mines, as it does in other branches, the number and character 
of the courses of instruction. (See the Principles of Instruc- 
tion.) The following topics, therefore, deserve special atten- 
tion : (1) The Nature of the Subject ; (2) The Pupil in Gram- 
mar ; and (3) The Number of Courses in Grammar. 

The Nature of the Subject. In grammar, consisting as 
it does practically of etymology and syntax, there are two 
species of necessary judgments. (1) The judgments of ety- 
mology are objective, i.e., they have to do with the various ob- 
jects of thought as classified in the parts of speech. (2) The 
judgments of syntax are subjective, i.e., they have to do with 
thoughts themselves. There is, however, an important dis- 
tinction between direct comparison and syllogism. (See the 
chapter on Mental Activity.) 

The Pupil in Grammar. Objective judgments are possi- 
ble before subjective judgments. (See Principles of Knowl- 
edge.) They are necessary stepping-stones in abstraction. 
Subjective judgments presuppose considerable maturity in re- 



GRAMMAR 211 

flootlon. Tlie syntax of Hirnplo Hcntenws, as the history oi' 
grammar hIiowh, (oIIowh otyrnolo^y as a natural KOfjUcncc, and 
is only slightly more (iiflicult. TU(i syntax of (;onij)l(;x and 
a)mpound mntanc/tH wjnsists of anat^jmic analysis and synthe- 
sis of syllogisms, and thus requiros a maturity in logical 
thought to whicii few pupils attain iicforc tho high school 
ojjoch. '^i'ho anomali(iS and sul>tl(;tif« of which the structure 
of Knglislj scnt<infM;s oiU-.n wjnsistH, require a keenness of analy- 
sis and a maturity in langiiage to which few can attain before 
the college ej)Och. 

The Number of Courses in Grammar. In view of the 
f)Hych(;logy of grammar and the powers of j)iipils, it seems ap- 
jiPopriate to arrange three courses of inHtructi<jn in grammar : 
(1) The elementary course for etymology and the sim})le sen- 
btiu'Ai; (2) The intermediate! course for c/nniAcUt f;tyrnology, 
and the complex and w^mpound sentences ; and (.'>) llic higher 
course for anomalies and subtleties in English classics. 

II. ELIOMKNTAItY ^iltAMMAii. 

The distinctive features of any course; of instruction come 
t() view aH ends tf> Ix; awompllshf;^], grf)und tf) })e r^)V(;rwl, or 
methods of woi'k. (See Principles of Instruction.) '^i'he fol- 
lowing topics, therefore, deserve attention at this point: (1) 
The Objw.-ts of Elementary Grammar ; (2) It« Subjects ; and 
(3) The Methods of rnKtructlon. 

The Objects of Elementary Grammar. 'J'he subjective 
judgments so important as reinforcements of etymology in 
elementiiry grammar (see Coursr-s in Grammar), require a 
maturity of mind seldom found in pupils j>rior U) their seventh 
year in school. In the two years of the grammar w;hool epoch 
which thus remain, many elementary inductions and a>rre- 
sponding deductions in grammar r;an be sur^jf^sfully aa;om- 
plished. 

The iTuludiorm of ElemenUiry Grammar. (1 ) The technical 



212 rRINCIPLES AND METHOl^S OF TEACHING 

uamo# of tho ooucopts of grammar, :v? uouu, tense, modifier, 
should, as a matter of ocouomy. W t:mght from the Ix^iuning. 
(2) The pupil of olomont;\rv gnvmmar shouUl seldom, if ever 
(stv the Sixth. Seventh, Eighth, and Tenth Prineiples of In- 
stnietion), lx> allowed to use definitions which were not devel- 
ojxxl in his own mind. The ability to desvTibe a concept in 
original language, is the Wi^t pixx^f that the pupil knows tho 
thing in question. The danger of putting a text-book in tlie 
hands of pupils in elemon^a^y grammar, is. therefore, very 
grvat, (o) The ivncvpts of ivlation (^;\givement, government, 
etc,) should lie exiv\nded into laws, and expressed in the form 
of rules. This pnxvss. like that of definition in grammar, 
presupjx^ses considerable mental maturity, and requires great 
skill in teachers. The rules, like the definitions of element- 
ary grammar, should at first be expressed iu the pupil's own 
language, 

Ilic DcdH<4ions of Hemfnfarjf Gram$nar. In order to 
make the conwpts of elementary grammar jiermauent jxissses- 
sions of the pupil's mind, to enlanre them, and to culti\-ate 
the habit of de^iuctive or practical judgment in language, 
worxls in seuteuceis should be jiarscvl, the sentences analyioed, 
inoxAmplcte s^nitences completed, detective sentences correctctl, 
and original sentences constructed. (See the First, Secc^nd, 
Fourth, and Eighth Principles of Instruction.) This ncces- 
sivry work should, of course, be as informal as possible, and 
vet as systematic as |x>ssible. 

The Subje<?ts of Elementary Grammar. Regard for 
logical sequence requires that a definite order be observed in 
]v»ssinsr fri>m subjcv^t to subject in grammar, as in any other 
branch of study. (See the chapter on The Nature of Knowl- 
edge,) 

Thf Oixlo' of Suhjc^is in ElcmnUarv Lriyimvnar. (1) The 
most objective, and therefore tlie most elementary task in 
grammar, is to classify words into parts of speech. This task 



GRAMMAR 21. 'J 

docH not presuppose aiialylie knowledge of sentcnccH. (2) 
After the noun, verb, adjective, and adverl) have been tau}2;ht 
as parts of speech, they should be pres(>nted as subject, predi- 
(!ate, and modifiers in sentences. (.'}) All th(^ |)arts of spee<!h 
should then be taught in their first form in sentences. (4) 
'J'he properties ;in<l inodifi(;;Uions of the parts of S[)eeeh should 
then b(! introduced as vari;i(ions in S(!uten(!(! relations. (r>) 
The classes of the parts of s|)eech, with the exception perhaps 
of (V)inniou ;nid juoper nouns, and |)ersonal ])ronouns, (^an be 
understood only when the projjerties of the parts of" speech 
and the anatomy of sentences have been taught. Some classes, 
as the relative jjronoun, cannot be fully taught until tlu^ com- 
plex sentence has been introduced. ((5) Com})lex and com- 
pound sentences whose thought relations are obvious, should, 
as a reinforcement of etymology, be introduced in the second 
year of grannnar. (7) The devel()])ment of a new eon(!ept or 
rule should always be followed by such infornuU parsing and 
analyzing as may be possible. Tlu^ sentences used in these 
exercises may be invented by th<^ t(!a(;her or s<'lected from the 
pupil's reading book. (8) lVacti(!e in reforming, comj)lctiug, 
and constructing sentences, should be connected with the de- 
velo])iueut of rules. The exercise of completing senttuKu.'S, 
though it may require more labor on the part of the teacher, 
since he must j)repare them with such omissions as may 
serve the ends in view, is more effective in the formation of 
right habits than tlu^ exercise of correcting sentences. The 
latter is as likely to imj)r<>ss errors as truths. Nevertluilcss, 
the ineorreet, sentences used by [)U|)ils should be subjected to 
most earc^f'ul reconstruction. 

The, Nmiibrr of Sii/jjcds in Elementary Grammar. Just 
how much gi'ouud to cover in two years of elementary gram- 
mar, nuist, of courses, depend nuich upon the capacity of the 
class and the skill of the teacher. It does not seem necessary, 
however, nor desirable, to teach all the concepts and rules of 



214 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

grammar, even in their most elementary phases. Much of this 
work can be done with greater satisfaction in the intermediate 
course. 

The Method of Instruction in Elementary Grammar. 
The ideal method of study, as already pointed out, consists of 
observation, induction, and deduction, in the order just sub- 
mitted. The ideal method of instruction (see Principles of 
Instruction) should, therefore, cause these mental processes in 
the pupil. 

The Method of Observation in Elementary Grammar. Ex- 
amples of that which is to be taught must be presented to the 
pupil's attention. The pupil's inquiry must be assisted by 
means of questions, hints, etc. In this way the elementary 
facts of grammar may be taught. 

The Method of Induction in Elementary Grammar. Many 
instances of that which is to be taught must be presented to 
the child's attention. Such questions, hints, etc., as may help 
the pupil to see that what is true of instances is generally true, 
must be added with great care. The pupil will need the 
teacher's constant guidance in the original definitions, original 
statement of rules, and original illustrations, which must be 
required as the necessary discijiline in induction. 

The Method of Deduction in Elementary Grammar. The 
difficulties in parsing, analyzing, etc., as they present them- 
selves in elementary grammar, must be divided and adapted 
to the pupil's power. The necessary concepts in these deduc- 
tive judgments must be kept perfect in the pupil's mind, lest 
confusion should result. Sentences in which the ideas are too 
abstract and general, or the tliought too complex, must, of 
course, be avoided in elementary deductions. 

Illustrative Lessons in Elementary Grammar, The 
following lessons are subjoined as illustrations of the method 
just described. They are designed as suggestions, and should 
not be slavishly imitated by methods-students. 



GRAMMAR 215 

The Concept " Noun." Teacher. Please name five objects, 
James. J. Box, hat, pencil, chair, apple. T. Since these 
words are names of objects, what may we call them, Kate? 
K. Perhaps we may call them object-words. T. What then 
is an object-word ? K. An object- word is the name of an ob- 
ject. T. An object-word may be called a Noun. Who can 
define a noun ? James. The name of an object is called a 
Noun. T. Please find the nouns in this sentence (writing it 
on the board). Write the nouns of your yesterday's reading 
lesson, and bring the list to-morrow morning. (The complete 
definition should be developed in the next few lessons.) 

The Concept " Verb." Teacher. Nell, what do birds do ? 
N. Birds sing, fly, eat, drink. T. Since these words are the 
names of actions, what may we call them? Robert. Action- 
words. T. What then is an action-word ? R. The name of 
an action is called an action-word. T. An action-word may 
be called a verb. Who can define a verb ? Emily. The name 
of an action is called a Verb. T. Please find the verbs in this 
sentence (writing it). Make a list of verbs in your reading 
lesson of yesterday, and bring the list to-morrow morning. 
(The complete definition should be taught in the following 
lessons.) 

The Concept "Adjective." Teacher. Are these objects 
in all respects alike ? Alfred. The pencil is round and black j 
the ruler is flat and brown. T. Since the words round, black, 
flat, and brown name the qualities of objects, what may we 
call them, class? C. Quality- words. T But since these 
words name the quality of objects, what kind of quality- 
words should we call them? C. Quality-object-words. T. 
What then is a quality-object- word, John ? J. The name of 
the quality of an object is called a quality-object- word. T. 
A quality-object-word may be called an Adjective. (The 
teacher should explain fully.) T. Who can define an adjec- 
tive ? Mildred. The name of a quality of an object is called 



216 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

an Adjective. T. Please find the adjectives in this sentence 
(writing it). Write in a column on your slate the adjectives 
in your yesterday's reading lesson, and bring the list to the 
grammar recitation to-morrow. (The complete definition of 
adjectives should be developed soon after pronouns.) 

The Concept " Adverb." Teacher. Are the actions which 
you observe (moving in various ways) in all respects alike, 
Thomas ? T. Sometimes you walked fast and then slowly ; 
sometimes you looked up and then down. Teacher. Since the 
words fast, slowly, up, and down name the qualities of actions, 
what may we call them? Mary. Quality-action-words. T. 
To what part of speech are they added, Thomas? T. To 
verbs. Teacher. For that reason quality-action-words are 
called Adverbs. Who can define an adverb? Mary. The 
name of a quality of an action is called an Adverb. T. Please 
find the adverbs in these sentences (writing a number of sen- 
tences). Write in a column the adverbs of your yesterday's 
reading lesson, and bring the list to-morrow. (The develop- 
ment of the complete definition of an adverb will require com- 
parisons of the qualities of objects and of actions. Pupils 
should be requii-ed to write illustrative sentences.) 

The Concept " Subject." (The pupils have learned what 
a sentence is, and the species of sentence, in language work.) 
Teacher, Which word in the sentence (Birds sing) which I 
have just written, names that about which something is said ? 
Helen. The noun birds. T. What is that about which we 
write in a composition called, Claude? C. It is called the 
Subject. T. What then may we call the word birds in our 
sentence ? C. The subject of the sentence. T. Who can de7 
fine the subject of a sentence ? Florence. That about which 
something is said in a sentence, is called the Subject. T. Please 
name the subjects of the sentences that I shall read from this 
book. Write in a column the subjects of the sentences of 
your to-day's reading lesson, and bring the list to-morrow. 



GRAMMAR 217 

(The pupils should be required to construct original sentences, 
underscoring the subject. The fact that phrases and clauses 
can be subjects, should probably not be taught the first year.) 

The Concept "Predicate." Teacher. In this sentence 
(the teacher writes Boys run), which word tells something 
about the subject, Frank? F. The verb run. T. Since the 
word run tells or asserts something about the subject, what 
might we call it ? F. A telling, or asserting word. T. Yes ; 
or a Predicate. Who can define a predicate ? Mary. That 
which is said about the subject of a sentence, is called the 
Predicate. (Exercises like those under the preceding heads, 
should be added. The fact that the verb of interrogative and 
imperative sentences is also a predicate should be taught in 
the next lesson. Attributes and objects should be introduced 
soon afterwards.) 

The Concept " Modifier." Teacher. Please read the sen- 
tence which I have written, Elmer. E. " Good boys study 
faithfully." T. Which word names the quality of the sub- 
ject, Gertrude? G. The adjective good. T. And which 
word names the quality of the predicate ? G. The adverb 
faithfully. T. Such words are called Modifiers. James, what 
then is a Modifier ? J". A word that names the quality of 
the subject or predicate, is called a Modifier. T. Since the 
word good is an adjective, what kind of a modifier may we 
call it? J. An adjective modifier. T. And the word faith- 
fully f J. An adverbial modifier. T. Please define an ad- 
jective modifier. An adverbial modifier. (Exercises similar 
to those already suggested should be added. The use of 
phrases and clauses, as modifiers, and the modification of 
attributes and objects, should be gradually introduced. Only 
one new point should be attempted at a time. Concepts al- 
ready taught should be frequently reviewed. The methods- 
students should be required to write out the suggested recita- 
tions.) 



218 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

The Concept " Pronoun." Teacher. John, please read 
the sentence which I have written. J. " Mildred holds Mil- 
dred's book." T. And this sentence, James ? J. " George 
holds George's wheel." T. How could we express the same 
thoughts without repeating the words Mildred and George f 
J. We can say '* Mildred holds her book," and " George holds 
his wheel." T. Of what parts of speech do the words his and 
her take the place, Annie ? A. They take the place of nouns. 
T. What may we call words used for nouns ? Jl. I think we 
may call them for-nouns. T. Yes ; or Pronouns, because pro 
means for, or iiistead of . Who can define a pronoun ? G. A 
word used for a noun is called a Pronoun. T. Please open 
your readers and find the pronouns in your yesterday's lesson. 
James, you may write these pronouns on the board as fast as 
your classmates find them for you. 

The Concept " Conjunction." Teacher. Please read the 
sentence which I have written, Mary. M. " He sells books 
and pictures." T. What word connects two words in the sen- 
tence? M. The word and connects the words boohs and 
pictures. T. What may we call words that connect or con- 
join others? M. We might call them conjoining words. T. 
Yes ; conjoining words, or Conjunctions. Who can define a 
conjunction ? (Such exercises as have been suggested should 
follow. The other uses of conjunctions should be introduced 
one at a time.) 

The Concept " Preposition." (The meaning of the word 
" relation" can be best taught by using it.) Teacher. Where 
is the book, Mary? M. On the table. T. And now? M. 
It is under the table. T. And where is it now ? 31. In my 
lap. T. Which words then did you use to express the rela- 
tion of the book and table, or your lap? 31. The words on, 
under, and m. 7\ What may we call words which show the 
relation of things? 3Iahel. Relation- words. T. Yes; or 
Prepositions. (The pupils should be led to see why they are 



GRAMMAR 219 

so called, but not at first.) T. James, what is a preposition ? 
J. A word which shows the relation of things is called a 
Preposition. (The usual exercises should follow.) 

The Concept " Case." (This property can be most con- 
veniently taught at first by means of pronouns, where the form 
of the word is a help.) Teacher. Please read the sentences 
which I have written, Charles. C. " James struck me." " I 
struck James." " James hit my hand." T. Do the words / 
and me, and my, refer to different persons ? C. They all refer 
to the same person. T. If these words all refer to the same 
person, why are they not all spelled the same way ? Emily. 
They are not used the same way : the word / is the subject of 
a sentence ; the word me is an object ; and the word my denotes 
ownership. T. These changes of form to suit the use of words 
as subject, object, and owner, are termed Case. Since the 
word me names the object of the sentence, in what case may we 
say that it is, Ralph ? R. In the objed-case. T. Yes ; or the 
Objective case. What words then are said to be in the objec- 
tive case, Mildred ? 31. A word used as the object of a sen- 
tence, is said to be in the objective case. T. Since the word 
my denotes ownership or possession, in what case is it ? M. 
In the Possessive case. T. What words therefore are in the 
possessive case? M. A word that denotes possession, is said 
to be in the possessive case. T. A word used as the subject 
of a sentence, is said to be in the Nominative case. James, 
please name the three possible cases that we have now found. 
Describe each case. (Sentences in which nouns are used in- 
stead of pronouns, should next be studied. The objective case 
after prepositions, can also be most conveniently taught with 
pronouns. The possessive form of nouns should be carefully 
studied. Special lessons on the nominative case by address 
may be attempted the second year. The nominative absolute 
should probably not be attempted before the intermediate 
course. The other properties of nouns and pronouns should 



220 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

be taught in the same way as Case. The methods-students 
should be required to write out recitations on person, gender, 
and number.) 

The Concept Tense. Teacher. Ruth, please read the 
sentences which I have just written. R. " Mary laughs." 
" Mary laughed." " Mary will laugh." T. To what times do 
the verbs in these sentences refer, Henry ? H. The first verb 
refers to present time ; the second, to past time ; and the third, 
to future time. T. The change of form in words to denote 
diiferent times, is called TeTise. Since the word laughs denotes 
present time, in what tense may we say that it is, Emma ? E. 
In the 'present tense. T. The word laughed f E. In the past 
tense. T. And the words will laugh f E. In the future tense, 
T. Mary, what is meant by tense? Present tense? Past 
tense? Future tense? (The other tenses, and all the other 
properties of the verb, should be taught in the way suggested. 
The methods-students should be required to write out the 
necessary recitations.) 

The Concept " Comparison." Teacher. Newton, please 
read the sentences on the board. N. " Maude's picture is 
grand." " Miriam's picture is grander than Maude's." 
" Grace's picture is the grandest of all." T. Please under- 
score the words which tell the quality of the pictures, James. 
(James underscores the right words.) T. Why are these 
words not all alike in form ? J. To denote unlikeness in the 
quality of the pictures. Teacher. Change in the endings in 
adjectives and adverbs to express degree in quality, is termed 
Comparison. The first degree is termed Positive ; the second. 
Comparative; and the third, or highest, Superlative. (These 
terms, though introduced arbitrarily at first, should be ex- 
plained as soon as })ossible. The various s])elh*ngs of regular 
and irregular adjectives and adverbs, should be illustrated, 
and finally classified. The methods-students should be re- 
quired to write out the necessary recitations.) 



GRAMMAR 221 

The Concepts "Regular" and "Irregular" Verb. 
Teache7\ Please read the sentences on the board, Grace. 
G. " The boy honored his father." " She sang a beautiful 
hymn." T. What is the tense of both verbs ? G. The past 
tense. T. How is the past tense, or preterit, formed in the 
first sentence, Robert ? R. By adding ed to the present tense 
form ? T. That is the usual, or regular, way of forming the 
preterit of verbs. What therefore may we call verbs wliose 
preterit is thus formed ? R. Regular verbs. T. Ruth, what 
is a regular verb ? An irregular verb ? (Care should be 
taken not to classify verbs whose preterit is formed by adding 
d, as ceased, with irregular verbs.) Please think of five reg- 
ular verbs, Helen. Mary, find five irregular verbs in this 
reader. (The usual exercises should, of course, not be omitted. 
All the classes of the parts of speech should be taught in the 
same way. The methods-students should be required to write 
out the necessary recitations.) 

The " Element" Concepts. Teacher. Please read the sen- 
tence on the board, Harry. H. "Alas! Poor David wept 
very bitterly and very penitently." T. Which are the neces- 
sary parts in this sentence ? H. Tlic subject and the predi- 
cate. T. Since the subject and predicate are the necessary 
parts, or elements, of a sentence, what may we call them, 
Walter ? W. The necessary elements. T. Yes ; the neces- 
sary, or Principal Elements. T. Since the modifiers of the 
subject and predicate, including the attribute and object, are 
not essential elements of the sentence, what may we call such 
modifiers, Thomas ? Thomas. Perhaps it would do to call 
them modifier elements. T. That name would do ; they are 
commonly called Subordinate Elements. Please point out the 
principal and the subordinate elements of the sentence which 
you read. Why are they so called ? What parts of speech 
are the words jwor, bitterly, and penitently, James ? J. Poor 
is an adjective ; the other words are adverbs. T. Then what 



222 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

may we call these elements ? J, Adjective elements and ad- 
verbial elements. (The term Adjunct may be introduced at 
this point.) T. Since it is the business of conjunctions to 
conned, what kind of an element may we call the word and, 
Grace ? G. A. Connective Element. T. Since Alas is not at 
all connected with the sentence so far as its form goes, what 
may we call it, May ? M. We might call it the Independent 
Element. (Other sentences illustrating the same points should 
be studied imtil the new terms are familiar. By and by 
phrases and clauses should be introduced as subordinate ele- 
ments ; relative pronouns and conjunctive adverbs should be 
made connectives ; and other words besides interjections should 
be used as independent elements. The methods-students should 
be required to write out the necessary recitations.) 

The " Rules" of Grammar. The rules of grammar should 
be introduced the second year, but not until the anatomy 
(see the preceding study) of the sentence is pretty familiar. 
One illustration must suffice. Teacher. Please read the sen- 
tence on the board. Alma. A. " The boy whom the gypsies 
had stolen, has been recovered." T. What part of speech is 
the word whom f A. A relative pronoun. (It is presumed 
that this concept was developed under classes of the parts of 
speech.) T. What is the person of the word whom, Elsie? 
E. It is of the third person (this concept was developed 
under properties of nouns and pronouns), because its ante- 
cedent is of that person. T. What other properties of whom 
do we know by its antecedent, Calvin ? C The number and 
gender. T. Put all these truths into one sentence, George. 
G. A relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person, 
number, and gender. T. What you have just said is always 
true of relative pronouns. Such general truths are termed 
Rules. Hereafter when you parse a relative pronoun, you 
will be expected to remember the rule which you found just 
now. (The methods-student should be required to write 



GRAMMAR 223 

out the necessary recitations for the development of several 
rules.) 

A Word to Methods-Students. Methods-students should 
not expect too great success in these inductive-deductive les- 
sons at first, nor should they hope to obtain ideal answers 
from their pupils. If, however, the main course be kept in 
mind, deviations can be corrected. 

III. INTERMEDIATE GRAMMAR. 

The distinctive features of intermediate, as well as of ele- 
mentary grammar, present themselves under the following 
heads : (1) The Objects of the Course ; (2) Its Subjects ; and 
(3) The Method of Instruction. 

The Objects of Intermediate Grammar. The object of 
intermediate grammar (see The Number of Courses) is greater 
perfection in its inductions and deductions. 

The Inductions of Intermediate Grammar. The concepts 
developed in elementary grammar, require enlargement. It is 
seldom possible to develop some of the most essential concepts 
of syntax before the high school epoch. The development of 
complete definitions in so abstract a study as grammar, re- 
quires considerable maturity. The same is true of rules as 
expressions of remote relations. 

The Deductions of Intermediate Grammar. The deductive 
comparisons required in parsing and analyzing complex and 
compound sentences, presupposing complete development of 
concepts and rules, are for that reason impossible for most 
pupils before the high school epoch. The successful deduc- 
tive construction of all species of sentences (the pi^actical ob- 
ject of grammar), presupposes correct standards of comparison 
and critical habit, and must therefore be regarded as tasks of 
maturer minds. 

The Subjects of Intermediate Grammar. The great 
subjects of intermediate, or high school grammar, in accord- 



224 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

ance with its objects, are : (1) Definitions ; (2) Rules ; (3) In- 
flections ; (4) Parsing ; (5) Analysis ; and (6) Exercises in Syn- 
tax. Three or four years should be devoted to this course, 
the number of recitations to be determined by practical con- 
siderations. 

Definitions in Intermediate Grammar. (1) The incom- 
plete definitions developed in elementary grammar should 
now be completed, care being taken that all definitions are 
correct descriptions of the pupil's conceptions. (2) New defi- 
nitions, descriptions of the new concepts developed in the in- 
termediate course, must, of course, be added. (3) In order to 
make the concepts contained in definitions permanent posses- 
sions, and thus ready standards for the deductive comparisons 
necessary in parsing, analyzing, and syntax, intermediate 
pupils should be required to commit definitions. For practical 
reasons, it is probably best to require intermediate pupils 
to commit the text-book definitions, or those of the teacher, 
but always in connection with the necessary inductive ap- 
proaches. 

Rules in Intermediate Grammar. (1) As a practical 
guide in constructing sentences, the " rules" of grammar, i.e., 
the statements of its general truths, must, of course, be com- 
mitted, at least virtually if not verbatim, but never imtil the 
necessary inductive approaches have been made. For reasons 
of economy, the statements of the text-book in use are prob- 
ably tlie most convenient. (2) " Notes" and " exceptions," 
though of great practical importance, should not be committed 
verbatim, since their contents can be readily associated with 
the " rules" to which they belong. Familiarity with these 
notes and exceptions is, however, a practical necessity. 

Inflections in Intermediate Grammar. (1) In elemen- 
tary grammar, inflections, i.e., declensions and conjugations, 
must necessarily be fragmentary ; but, in intermediate gram- 
mar, these fragments should be gradually collected into wholes. 



GRAMMAR 225 

mastered in thought, and memorized. (2) Irregular declen- 
sions and conjugations require special attention. The princi- 
pal parts of irregular verbs, together with other irregularities 
of the parts of speech, should be thoroughly memorized and 
frequently used in syntax. 

Parsing in Intermediate Grammar. The deductive ex- 
planation of " words in sentences," like inflection, must neces- 
sarily be fragmentary in elementary grammar. In other 
words, elementary pupils should be expected to point out the 
parts of speech in question, naming such properties as may 
have been studied, and answering such questions as the teacher 
may put. But, in intermediate grammar, parsing should be- 
come a definite system of explanations. 

Foi^ms of Parsing. Some definite plan, or scheme, of 
parsing, commonly the scheme of the book in use, should be 
adhered to in intermediate classes. In parsing a noun, for 
example, the scheme might consist of the following order : (1) 
Class ; (2) Gender ; (3) Person ; (4) Number ; (5) Case ; and 
(6) Rule. Whatever scheme may be adopted, it should be as 
simple and logical as possible. Every part of a scheme 
should be thoroughly understood, lest parsing become a 
meaningless repetition of words. To be practically service- 
able, such forms must be memorized. Forms of parsing are 
necessary for several reasons : (1) They enable pupils to parse 
a word completely without hesitation, thus saving time ; (2) 
They enable the listening pupils and the teacher to detect 
and remember errors more effectively, and thus serve the in- 
terests of the recitation ; and (3) They promote habits of order- 
liness in written recitations, and economize time in criticising 
such recitations. 

Enthymeme Statements in Parsing. For some time, at least, 
intermediate as well as elementary pupils should be required 
to add reasons to their statements in parsing words. In the 
sentence, " Man is mortal," the word is, for example, should 

15 



226 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

be parsed as follows : Is is a neuter verb, because it expresses 
being; etc. To save time and to preserve thoughtfulness, 
those reasons with which the pupil is known to be familiar, 
should not be required. Rules should generally be fully 
stated. The objects of enthymeme statements in parsing are 
as follows : (1) The requirements tend to make the concepts 
presupposed in these deductive judgments, permanent posses- 
sions ; (2) It is an admirable discipline in syllogistic thought, 
promoting right habit and preparing for logic. 

Simple Statements in Parsing. As soon as it seems safe for 
pupils to do so, they should be required to parse words com- 
pletely without adding reasons to classifications. In the sen- 
tence, " Great Caesar fell," the word great, for example, should 
be parsed as follows : The word great is a descriptive adjective 
of the positive degree ; it modifies the word Caesar, according 
to the rule, " Adjectives relate to nouns and pronouns." To 
make sure that pupils parsing this way do not let acquired 
concepts slip, and that they think as well as speak in parsing, 
the teacher must ask for reasons wherever he suspects defec- 
tions. The reasons for parsing in this way are as follows : 
(1) It saves time without injury to the pupil's mind ; (2) It is 
an admirable discipline in rapid thinking, promoting the habit 
of decision in connection with that of accuracy ; and (3) It 
is more interesting to parse in this way when much of it has 
to be done. 

Abbreviations in Parsing. In written parsing some system 
of abbreviations is convenient. The following scheme is pro- 
posed by Dr. E. O. Lyte in his "Grammar and Composi- 
tion." Write the sentence whose words are to be parsed in 
one line if possible. Draw a line under the words to be 
parsed, and write the initial letters of the parsing in a vertical 
column under the respective words. Do not use punctuation 
marks. When necessary, use a dotted line to separate the 
written parsing of two words. 



GRAMMAR 227 

Illustration : 

The enemy advancing, he ordered the signal to be given. 



r i n V 


r t f V 


it — n V 


par 
pr 


a 
ind 


P 
inf 


enemy 
(rule) 


pa 
he 

3 

s 
(rule) 


pr 

signal 
(rule) 



For fuller explanation the student is respectfully referred to 
Dr. Lyte's Grammar and Composition. 

The objects of such abbreviations are as follows : (1) The 
plan is serviceable in preparing lessons for the teacher's in- 
spection ; (2) It is useful in combination with oral parsing, as 
a variation from the full forms, aud as a means of parsing 
more sentences in a given time. (3) The plan must, how- 
ever, be carefully guarded, lest pupils make it a system of 
deceptions. 

Eclectic Parsing. As a rule, intermediate pupils should be 
required to parse the words of a sentence in order. By and 
by, however, the process of parsing should become eclectic. 
There are two species of eclective parsing : (1) Those words 
or parts of speech with which the pupils are known to be 
familiar, may be ignored ; and (2) The teacher may ask such 
questions about certain words in the sentence as seem to him 
to test the pupil's knowledge. Both forms are convenient with 
advanced pupils : (1) The plan saves time and tends to pre- 
serve interest in grammar ; (2) It is a better mode of discipline, 
since it requires constant attention and thoughtful judgment. 

TTie Proportion of Oral and Written Parsing. Oral parsing 
takes less time, but written parsing is a better discipline in 
language. Written parsing saves time as a supplement in 
recitations, and Ls a convenient mode of exhibiting the prepara- 



228 PMNCirLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

tion of lessons. Oral parsing, though not as effective as a dis- 
cipline in language, is indispensable as a language exercise. 
Probably younger pupils should do more oral, and older pupils 
more written parsing. 

Errors in Parsing. There are two species of errors in 
parsing : (1) The pupil may say the wrong thing, as when he 
calls a verb a noun though he knows better. This is termed 
an error of form. (2) The pupil may have the wrong idea, as 
when he regards a regular verb irregular. This is termed an 
error of judgment. Errors of form are due either to thought- 
lessness or slips of the tongue, and may be remedied by re- 
moving the causes. Errors of judgment are due either to im- 
perfect inductions or slips of memory, and must be remedied 
by perfect induction or review. 

The Objects of Parsing. The objects of parsing are as fol- 
lows : (1) To exercise pupils in acquired knowledge, thus 
making it a permanent possession ; (2) To exercise pupils in 
deductive judgments, thus developing the important power 
of deductive thought ; and (3) To equip pupils with standard 
conceptions for the criticism and construction of sentences. 

Analysis in Intermediate Grammar. In elementary 
grammar, the pupil is confined almost altogether to simple 
sentences and informal analysis. The intermediate course is 
concerned more especially with complex and compound sen- 
tences, and the process of analysis becomes a complete system 
of deductive explanation. 

Porms of Analysis. There are two possible forms, or plans, 
of analyzing a sentence, the synthetic and the analytic : (1) In 
synthetic analysis the simple subject and predicate are named, 
and their adjuncts added. Take this sentence for example : 
The man who committed that dreadful crime, was arrested by 
the officers. This is a complex declarative sentence, consist- 
ing of one principal and one dependent clause. The simple 
subject of the principal clause is man, modified by the adjec- 



GRAMMAE 229 

tive adjuncts the and the relative clause who committed that 
dreadful crime. The simple subject of this dependent clause, 
is who, the predicate of the clause is committed, and the object 
crime, modified by the adjective adjuncts that and dreadfid. 
The whole, or logical subject is, therefore, The man who com- 
mitted that dreadful crime. The simple predicate of the prin- 
cipal clause is was arrested, modified by the adverbial adjunct 
phrase by the officers, of which phrase officers is the object, 
modified by the adjective adjunct the, and governed by the 
preposition by. The whole predicate of the principal clause is 
wa^ arrested by the officers. (2) In analytic analysis the whole 
subject and predicate of the principal clause, are named first. 
The whole subject is then analyzed into its parts, as in syn- 
thetic analysis, the dependent clause included. The same 
thing is done with the principal predicate. (3) The synthetic 
form of analysis is a little simpler and allows more time for 
reflection, and is, therefore, more appropriate for younger 
pupils, while the analytic form is more logical and should, 
therefore, be used by older pupils. 

Entliymeme Statements in Analysis. Until there can be no 
doubt that pupils use the technical language of analysis intel- 
ligently, they should be required to add reasons to statements, 
as in parsing. This requirement seems self-evident, but it has 
been so commonly violated, and with such bad effects on the 
mental life of pupils, that it must be urged upon teachers as 
the indispensable thing. 

Simple Statements in Analysis. When there can be no doubt 
that the technical language of grammatical analysis is under- 
stood by the pupils, they should not be required to use entliy- 
meme statements. For illustrations, see the analysis of the 
sentence under " Forms of Analysis." The reasons for such 
simple statements in the analysis of a sentence are the same as 
in such parsing. (See the paragraph on " Simple Statements 
in Parsing.") 



230 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

Abbreviations in Analysis. In analyzing a sentence, as in 
parsing, and for the same reasons, systems of abbreviation are 
convenient. Various systems of such analysis are proposed 
in the text-books of Brown, Lyte, Hadley, and others. To 
these books on grammar the methods-student is respectfully 
referred. The following illustration is taken from Dr. Lyte's 
" Grammar and Composition." It is the analysis of the sen- 
tence " An idler is a watch that wants both hands." 



C^D 



idler « 

An="« 
isP + 
watch ^ P " 

aadj 

that« «» 
wants P -)- 

hands* » 
both^'^j 



adj 



Eclectic Analysis. With advanced pupils time can be saved 
and thought promoted by eclectic parsing. In this mode of 
analysis the teacher simply inquires into the difficulties of a 
lesson, and, if the answers to his questions are satisfactory, he 
assumes that his pupils understand the whole lesson. Eclec- 
tic parsing is, therefore, a risk with immature pupils, since it 
assumes too much. 

Grammatical Description. Grammatical description is an 
eclectic union of parsing and analysis. Its design is two-fold : 
(1) It saves time by ignoring unimportant details; and (2) It 
is an admirable exercise in thinking. It is, however, not ap- 
propriate for younger pupils, since it presupposes training in 
both parsing and analysis. The subjoined treatment of the 
sentence, The little bird that sang so sweetly in my garden yes- 
terday, was wounded this morning by a hunter, is an illustration 
of the synthetic method of grammatical description. The 
analytic method is readily derived. 



GRAMMAR 231 

The proposed sentence is a simple declarative sentence. 
The is an article ; it is used to modify bird. Little is an ad- 
jective ; it also is used to modify bird. Bird is a noun ; it is 
used as the subject of was wounded. That is a relative pro- 
noun, and its antecedent is bird ; it is used as the subject 
of sang; it introduces the clause that sang so sweetly in my 
garden yesterday, and joins it to bird. Sang is a verb ; 
its subject is that. So is an adverb ; it is used to modify 
sweetly. Sweetly is an adjective ; it modifies sang. In is a 
preposition ; it is used to introduce the phrase in my garden, 
and joins it to sang. My is a personal pronoun ; it is used to 
modify garden. Garden is a noun ; it is used as the object 
of in. That sang so sweetly in my garden yesterday is a clause 
used as an adjective ; it modifies bii-d. The little bird that sang 
so sweetly hi my garden yesterday is the entire subject of the 
sentence. Was wounded is a verb ; its simple subject is bird. 
This is a demonstrative adjective ; it is used to modify morn- 
ing. Morning is a noun ; it is used as an adverb of time, and 
modifies was wounded. By is a preposition ; it is used to in- 
troduce the phrase by a hunter, and joins it to ivas wounded. 
A is an article, and modifies hunter. By a hunter is a phrase 
used as an adverb ; it modifies was wounded. Was wounded 
this morning by a hunter is the entire predicate of the sentence. 

Diagrams in Grammar. A grammatical diagram is a pic- 
ture by which it is proposed to represent to the eye the rela- 
tions of words in sentences. Professor Clark's system is a 
very clever invention, and has been favorably received. The 
system used in Reed and Kellog's grammar not only " looks 
well on the board," but is an effective instrument in the 
teacher's hands. The objections to grammatical diagrams are 
as follows : (1) It is not true that lines and directions can 
picture the anatomy of thoughts; (2) The diagram that will 
represent the anatomy of a lengthy complex or compound 
sentence, is probably more difficult to understand than the 



232 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

analysis without diagrams. The legitimate uses of diagrams 
are as follows : (1) They represent the anatomy of a sentence, 
and are thus effective helps in the analysis of the tliought of 
the sentence ; (2) They are admirable modes of written recita- 
tion, saving much time and adding interest to the study of 
grammar ; and (3) They are useful modes of preparing lessons 
for the teacher's inspection. 

It is believed, however, that the simplest possible system 
of diagrams is the only justifiable one, and that even then 
there is danger of making the diagram too prominent at the 
expense of the pupil's development in logical independence. 

Errors in Analysis. Two species of error are possible in 
analyzing a sentence: (1) The pupil may err in language, as 
when he miscalls elements of the sentence or misrepresents re- 
lations by diagrams and abbreviations. These errors of form 
are caused either by thoughtlessness, slips of the tongue, slips 
of memory, or defective instruction. The removal of these 
causes is the proper remedy. (2) The pupil may err in 
thought, as when he mistakes the elements of a sentence or 
their relations. These errors of judgment, as they are called, 
are commonly caused either by inattention, lack of prepara- 
tion, imperfect inductions, or slips of memory. The causes 
should be removed. 

The Proportion of Oral and Written Analysis. Oral analy- 
sis is probably more interesting than written analysis, and 
takes less time. It is also better than written analysis as an 
exercise in rapid thinking. Written analysis is the proper 
supplement in recitation, and offers a better opportunity to do 
correct and complete work. It is also an indispensable re- 
quirement in tlie preparation of lessons for the teacher's inspec- 
tion. Probably, therefore, oral analysis should preponderate 
over written analysis in younger classes, and vice versa in 
older classes. 

The Relation of Analysis to Parsing. (1) Parsing is a prepa- 



GRAMMAR 233 

ration for analysis in two ways : (a) It furnishes many necessary 
technical terms ; and (6) It introduces the pupil to the word- 
individuals which are the elements of sentences. (2) Analysis 
reinforces parsing in two ways : (a) It presupposes and em- 
ploys the ideas and language acquired in parsing ; and {b) It 
reveals properties of the parts of speech which parsing alone 
could not discover, as in the case of relative pronouns, preposi- 
tions, etc, (See " Grammatical Description.") 

The Objects of Analysis. The objects of analysis are as 
follows : (1) It is an admirable exercise in deductive thinking, 
and tends to develop critical power ; (2) It is a fine training 
in the expression of ideas and thoughts ; and (3) It equips for 
the criticism and construction of sentences. 

Exercises in Syntax. The study of each rule of relation, 
agreement, government, and arrangement, should be supple- 
mented (1) by criticism of sentences in whose structure the 
rule in question or some rule already studied, is violated ; and 

(2) by original construction of sentences according to some rule 
or rules. 

False Syntax. (1) A collection of suitable sentences for 
exercise in the correction of false syntax, is generally found 
in text-books on grammar. The teacher may supplement 
this collection, if he sees fit to do so. The false syntax so 
commonly found in school-rooms and on school-grounds, 
should be noted down and criticised. (2) It is sometimes 
urged that such attention to false syntax tends to fix the false 
forms as habits of the pupil. This is only too true where 
pupils are allowed to read, write, and hear these sentences 
without correction. The correct must, of course, be made to 
prevail over the incorrect. This is the law of right habit. 

(3) There are various forms of correcting false syntax, some 
one of which should be adhered to, though not too mechani- 
cally, in class work. The subjoined oral and written correc- 
tion of the sentence, " Was it him whom you saw ?" illustrates 



234 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

a common and convenient method of correcting false syntax. 
(1) The sentence is incorrect. The objective pronoun him is 
used as an attribute complement. In its place the nomina- 
tive pronoun he should be used, according to the rule that a 
noun or pronoun used as an attribute complement must be in 
the same case as the subject to which it refers. (2) The sen- 
tence should therefore be, Was it he whom you saw ? 

The methods-students should be required to write out the 
synopsis of these illustrations and apply the plan to other 
cases of false syntax. Any other systematic plan will serve 
the same purpose. (See text-books on grammar.) 

Original Se7ite7iccs. Intermediate students should be re- 
quired to construct sentences in conformity with studied rules. 
Early in the course these exercises should be developed into 
brief compositions on various topics. It is of the greatest 
importance to require students writing such compositions to 
justify the construction of every sentence, i.e., to show that it 
conforms with law. 

The Imjwrtance of Exercises in Syntax. It should ever be 
kept in mind that the practical objects of the study of gram- 
mar are the following : (1) To develop adequate power, right 
habits, and correct tastes, in the construction of sentences, and 
to construct sentences deductively ; and (2) To prepare the 
student to understand and appreciate the construction of sen- 
tences in literature. 

The Method of Instruction in Intermediate Grammar. 
The distinctive features of intermediate methods come to view 
under the following heads : (1) Text-Books of Intermediate 
Grammar ; (2) The Preparation of Lessons ; and (3) The Reci- 
tation. 

Text-Books of Intermediate Grammar. (1) The first text- 
book of intermediate grammar should be planned for obser- 
vation, induction, and deduction, in such proportion as will best 
serve the purposes in hand. (See " The Objects of Intermediate 



GRAMMAR 235 

Grammar,") Dr. Lyte's Gramma7- and Co7nposition, and sev- 
eral other late grammars, are illustrations of this ideal method. 
The fact that the great majority of text-books have been too 
deductive in plan, accounts at least partially for the failures re- 
corded in the history of grammar. (2) After about two years' 
study of a book like Dr. Lyte's, a text like Brown's " Insti- 
tutes of English Grammar," whose plan is deductive, should 
be taken up for a year or two. (3) The grammjir of several 
English classics, such as Gray's " Elegy" and Pope's " Essay 
on Man/' together with Latin or German grammar, should be 
added to Brown in high schools and Normal schools, with the 
special purpose of cultivating analytic power and critical taste. 

Preparation of Lessons in Intermediate Grammar. The 
lesson having been definitely assigned, intermediate pupils in 
grammar should be required to observe, to parse and analyze, 
and to correct and construct sentences, etc., according to the plan 
of the lesson. Some of this work should be prepared in writing 
and submitted for inspection. ' Parsing and analyzing by ab- 
breviation, as indicated, and diagrams, should constitute parts 
of the student's preparation. The pupil should be expected to 
be master of the definitions and rules that may be in question. 

The Recitation in Intermediate Grammar. The objects of 
the recitation (see the Fifth General Principle of Education) 
are culture and instruction. 

For the culture of all the mental functions the following 
tasks may be assigned : (1) To state, explain, and illustrate 
definitions or rules ; (2) To decline, conjugate, or compare 
words ; (3) To parse certain words of a sentence ; (4) To ana- 
lyze a sentence ; (5) To correct or construct sentences accord- 
ing to rule. This work should, of course, be partly oral and 
partly written, the proportion depending on the nature of the 
tasks and the purposes of the teacher. 

(1) While part of the grammar class is working at the 
board, the teacher must supervise the oral work, adding cor- 



236 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

rections and information wherever the right opportunity- 
presents itself. (2) When the board-workers read what they 
have written, there will be splendid opportunities to make 
corrections and to add information. The task of correcting 
board-work should be divided between the class and the 
teacher. Much of the success to which the teacher hopes to 
attain will depend on the skill with which he adds informa- 
tion in class. 

IV. HIGHER GRAMMAR. 

Our limits forbid all but a brief outline of the work to be 
done in higher grammar. The following outline is subjoined 
as a stimulus to teachers and special students. 

The Objects of Higher Grammar. The ends in view in 
higher grammar are as follows : (1) The attainment of such 
scholarship as the merits of the branch justify ; (2) The prep- 
aration of students for the comprehension and enjoyment of 
literature so far as such comprehension and enjoyment depend 
on training in grammar ; and (3) The development of such 
practical proficiency in grammar as may serve the practical 
interests of the various occupations and professions. 

The Subjects of Higher Grammar. The course of higher 
grammar belongs to the latter part of the high school epoch, 
to Normal schools, and to preparatory schools of high grade. 

Higher Grammar of High Schools. To the work already 
mapped out for high schools, the following tasks may be 
added where the circumstances allow it: (1) A special course 
in the anomalies of English grammar ; (2) A course in the 
correlation of grammar with rhetoric, logic, etc. ; (3) A course 
in the grammar of the most difficult English master-pieces ; 
and (4) A course of composition in which the special object is 
the deductive construction of sentences. 

Higher Ch-ammar in Normal Schools. The Normal school 
should offer a course of grammar equivalent to that mapped 



GRAIVIMAR 237 

out for high schools. The special stand-point of Normal 
schools requires such a course for two reasons : (1) As a prep- 
aration for the pedagogics of grammar ; and (2) As an equip- 
ment in teaching grammar. There should be constant refer- 
ence to such higher text-books on grammar as A^Tiitney's, etc. 
The history and philosophy of grammar should, of course, be 
connected with the pedagogics of grammar. (See " The Nature 
of Grammar.") A course of comparative grammar is also 
desirable for teachers and specialists. 

Higher Grammar of Preparatory Schools. The purposes of 
preparatory schools requires a course in grammar equivalent 
to that mapped out for high schools. (1) Such a course serv^es 
as a disciplinary means in preparing for college ; and (2) It is 
indispensable as a preparation for the study of philology and 
foreign grammar. 

The Method of Instruction in Higher Grammar. The 
method employed in intermediate grammar is virtually the 
right method for higher grammar. The higher phases of the 
subject, the special purposes in view, and the individuality of 
the teacher, must determine the necessary adjustments. The 
})edagogics of grammar is a problem of psychology and econ- 
omy, and must obviously be studied from those stand-points. 

V. THE IMPORTANCE OF GRAMMAR. 

To appreciate the importance of grammar, one must under- 
stand its efficiency as a means of culture and instruction. The 
following topics deserve special consideration : (1) The Culture 
Value of Grammar ; (2) The Instruction Value of Grammar ; 
(3) The Practical Value of Grammar ; and (4) The Training 
of Teachers of Grammar. 

The Culture Value of Grammar. The nature of the 
subject (see beginning of this chapter) and the necessary 
method of instruction make grammar the possible means of 
cultivating all the functions of the intellect, but especially the 



238 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

understanding. (The methods-student should be required to 
prove this statement.) As the virtual study of the structure 
of thought, together with concomitant emotion and volition, it 
is an admirable exercise of self-consciousness. But, studied 
rightly, grammar is more than a discipline of the intellect ; 
the joy of inductive discoveries and deductive uses, rouses the 
whole " heart" into responses ; and the caution, concentration, 
and purpose, so essential in the right study of grammar, make 
it a most excellent discipline of the will. " The Committee of 
Fifteen" says : " Grammar demonstrates its title to the first 
place by its use as a discipline in subtle analysis, in logical 
division and classification, in the art of questioning, and in the 
mental accomplishment of making exact definitions. Nor is 
this an empty formal discipline, for its subject matter, lan- 
guage, is a product of the reason of a people not as individuals 
but as a social whole, and the vocabulary holds in its store of 
words the generalized experience of that people, including 
sensuous observation and reflection, feeling and emotion, in- 
stinct and volition." One-sided training in grammar, how- 
ever, may have serious results. On this point the same com- 
mittee says : " Grammar, rich as it is in its contents, is only a 
formal discipline as respects the scientific, historic, or literary 
contents of language, and is indifferent to them. A training 
for four or five years in parsing and grammatical analysis 
practised on literary works of art (Milton, Shakespeare, Ten- 
nyson, Scott) is a training of the pupil into habits of indiffer- 
ence toward and neglect of the genius displayed in the literary 
work of art, and into habits of impertinent and trifling at- 
tention to elements employed as material or texture, and a cor- 
responding neglect of the structural form which alone is the 
work of the artist." 

The Instruction Value of Grammar. The study of the 
structure of sentences is virtually the study of the structure of 
thought, admittedly the most important study of man. The 



GRAMMAR 239 

fact that thought cannot be isolated from emotion and voli- 
tion, makes the study of grammar the great anteroom of psy- 
chology proper. On this point " The Committee of Fifteen" 
says : " It shows the structure of language, and the logical 
forms of subject, predicate, and modifier, thus revealing the 
essential nature of thought itself, the most important of all 
objects, because it is self-object." 

The Practical Value of Grammar. The practical advan- 
tages of grammar are as follows : (1) It oflfers a systematic 
guidance in the construction of sentences, and is, therefore, of 
inestimable value to spoken and to written discourse ; (2) It 
is the indispensable preparation for the study of rhetoric, logic, 
foreign languages, and philology ; (3) It is impossible to com- 
prehend and appreciate fully the structural agency of litera- 
ture, without a thorough training in grammar ; and (4) The 
proper study of grammar develops habits of mind which are 
of the greatest importance as practical equipments. 

The Training- of Teachers of Grammar. The responsi- 
bility of teachers of grammar must, of course, be measured by 
the importance of the study. If, therefore, grammar is as im- 
portant to pupils as just explained, it is evident that teachers 
of grammar need the best possible training in grammar. This 
training consists of two items : (1) Training in grammar itself. 
This training, as elsewhere stated, is needed in the art as well 
as in the science of teaching grammar. Without such profi- 
ciency, grammar will be distasteful to students and a failure as 
an educational instrument. (2) Training in the principles and 
methods of teaching grammar is necessary. Since this topic 
was the subject of the present chapter, it is hoped that further 
discussion may not be necessary. 



240 PEINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

CHAPTER VIII. 

ARITHMETIC. 

The purpose in hand requires that in this chapter our atten- 
tion be directed to (1) The Nature of Arithmetic ; and (2) In- 
struction in Arithmetic. 

A. THE NATURE OP ARITHMETIC. 

In order to form a correct idea of the nature of arithmetic, 
it is necessary to consider the following topics : (1) The " Sub- 
ject" of Arithmetic ; (2) The Psychology of Arithmetic ; (3) 
The Definition of Arithmetic ; and (4) The History of Arith- 
metic. 

I. THE "SUBJECT" OF ARITHMETIC. 

It is with " numbers" (how many), rather than with the 
nature and relations of things, that arithmetic has to do. But, 
as in drawing, it is rather the acts than the lines in question in 
those acts that coustitute the " subject" of study (though both 
together are the subject), so in arithmetic it is rather the oper- 
ations than the numbers in question in those operations that 
constitute the subject of arithmetic (though both together are 
the subject). A complete description of the "subject" of 
arithmetic, therefore, requires the consideration of tiie follow- 
ing topics: (1) The Nature of Numbers; and (2) The Number- 
Operations. 

The Nature of Numbers. Parts of any kind which to- 
gether constitute a whole for the mind, thus constitute what is 
termed a Unit. Any unit in tlie conception of which the mind 
is unconscious of arbitrary division is termed an Integral 
Unit. The division of the integral unit gives rise to the Frac- 
tional Unit, as one-third. A unit or collection of imits is 



ARITHMETIC 241 

termed a Number, as one, one-half, two. With reference to 
units, there are three species of numbers : (1) The integral 
unit or a collection of integral units is termed an Integral 
Number, as one, nine. (2) The fractional unit or a collection 
of fractional units is termed a Fractional Number, or Frac- 
tion, as one-half, one-tenth. There are three familiar species 
of Fractions, (a) Common FractioUvS, (6) Decimal Fractions, 
and (c) Duodecimal Fractions. Simple reference to these spe- 
cies of fractions must suffice at this point. (3) When the 
integral unit is a conventional unit of measure, as one-pound, 
the corresponding numbers, as one pound, one half pound, 
three pounds, are termed Denominate Numbers. 

An Important Distinction. It is important to distinguish 
the concepts denoted by the term " number" and " numbers." 
The concept " number" is general ; the concept " numbers" is 
particular in its application. Numbers (a number, the num- 
bers) are either definitely or indefinitely particular. It is only 
with number in the definite sense of "just how many" that we 
have to do in arithmetic. 

The Number-Operations. The quantitative character of 
numbers gives rise to three number-operations, (1) Synthesis, 
(2) Analysis, and (3) Comparison. 

The Synthesis of Numbers. The possible modes of synthesis 
of numbers, as determined by the nature of number, are as 
follows : (1) To fix the mind on each object of a collection, to 
ascertain the number of objects ; (2) To fix the mind on given 
numbers in succession, to ascertain the sum ; and (3) To take 
a number a number of times, to ascertain the product. These 
modes of synthesis are termed respectively (1) Counting, (2) 
Addition, and (3) Multiplication. Counting is the most ele- 
mentary process of addition, and multiplication is addition by 
uniform repetition. There are two distinct varieties of mul- 
tiplication : (1) A number of numbers may be used as factors, 
and the product ascertained. This process is termed Compo- 

16 



242 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

sition. (2) A number may be used a number of times as a 
multiplier, and the product ascertained. This process is termed 
Involution. 

The Analysis of Numbers. The possible modes of analysis 
of numbers, as determined by the nature of number, are as 
follows : (1) To take a number from a number, to ascertain the 
difference ; and (2) To take the same number away as often as 
possible, to ascertain the number of times one number contains 
another. These modes of analysis are termed respectively (1) 
Subtraction, and (2) Division. Division is subtraction by uni- 
form diminution, and there are two distinct varieties : (a) A 
composite number may be subjected to successive divisions, the 
numbers of which it is composed being thus ascertained. This 
process is termed Factoring. (6) A number may be resolved 
into the equal factors of which it is the product. This process 
is termed Evolution. 

The Comparison of Numbers. The possible modes of com- 
paring numbers, as determined by the relation of numbers, are 
as follows : (1) The comparison of two equivalent numerical 
quantities ; (2) The comparison of two unequal numbers ; and 
(3) The comparison of two equal relations of numbers. The 
equations which express these three modes of comparison are 
termed respectively (1) Simple Equation, (2) Ratio, and (3) 
Proportion. The ends in view are respectively, (1) To trans- 
form any numerical quantity into a more desirable form, as 
2x3 = 6; (2) To measure the relation of unequal numerical 
quantities, as 12:15 = |^; and (3) To complete one ratio by 
means of another, as 6:6 = 1:4. These equations, as the 
thoughtful reader will see, are really the thought-processes in 
the various modes of synthesis and analysis just described in 
the text. Indeed, all the judgments of arithmetical processes 
fall into the form of equations. 

The Language of the Number- Operations. For various 
reasons it is as important to express number-concepts and 



AEITHMETIC 243 

number-operations truthfully, as it is to describe objects and 
events. In order to carry on, as well as to express and record 
the number-operations, a language sui generns is requisite. 
The complexity of many number-concepts and number-opera- 
tions requires a language in which the elements are few and 
their capactity for composition as great as possible. The most 
remarkable adaptation to these requirements is the Arabic sys- 
tem of numeration and notation. The Arabic figures (1, 2, 3, 
4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0), and various sign supplements, are few 
enough to satisfy any critic. The method of combining these 
characters and giving them value according to the place which 
they occupy toward the right or left, each figure being worth ten 
times as much every place toward the left, is one of remarkable 
power. The value of the method is increased by the simple 
system of grouping the places and naming the groups. The 
Roman notation, as any one can understand who will take the 
time to think about it, is far inferior to the Arabic system, 
and, except as a means in expressing differences in emphasis, 
has become almost obsolete. Only one other system, the pro- 
posed duodecimal notation, in which two additional characters 
are employed, and in which each figure toward the left is 
worth twelve times as much as if it stood a place further 
toward the right, is superior to the Arabic, or decimal system. 
It is superior to the Arabic system in its greater capacity to 
express common fractions in few figures. But, whatever may 
be said about the numeration and notation, i.e., about speak- 
ing, writing, and reading numbers, this is obvious, that numer- 
ation and notation, as a sui generis and necessary means in 
number-operation, must be made the subject of special study. 
Tlie Subject of Arithmetic. (1) From the foregoing consid- 
erations it appears that the properties and relations of num- 
bers, together with the number-operations (synthesis, analysis, 
and comparison) aud the language-means, are the " subject" 
of arithmetic. (2) The concrete applications of the number- 



244 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

operations, as well as many other problems found in our arith- 
metics, belong essentially to the domain of logic. Indeed, all 
problems are logical exercises. In other words, problems are 
statements of conditions, or premises, and the worker is re- 
quired to construct the syllogism or series of syllogisms, by 
means of which he can obtain the conclusion. It must, how- 
ever, be remembered that, while these logical processes require 
the services of arithmetic, they are not in the technical sense 
the " subject" of arithmetic. 

II. THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ARITHMETIC. 

Three things must be included in our present conception of 
arithmetic: (1) A well-defined system of operations ; (2) An 
organic body of Principles ; and (3) The logical adjustment 
of arithmetic to practical and theoretical spheres. Tlie mental 
steps in the development of arithmetic are respectively : (1 ) 
Observation, (2) Induction, and (3) Deduction. 

Observation in Arithmetic. The observation of numbers 
begins with the conce2:)tion (see chapter on Mental Activity) of 
number as quantity. The concept of number as quantity im- 
plies the possibility of synthesis, analysis, and comparison. It 
is assumed that, as a means in the conception of particular num- 
bers, these processes, at least in their simplest modes, are spon- 
taneous in all minds. When the mind matures it observes 
variations in the elementary processes of synthesis, analysis, 
and comparison, or subjects them voluntarily to experiments 
in which the conditions are constantly varied. Some of these 
variations are doubtless accidental ; but, whether accidental or 
intentional, it is through them that all the species of synthesis, 
analysis, and comparison of numbers are discovered. This 
necessary genesis of the number-concepts determines both the 
method and course of instruction in these concepts. 

Induction in Arithmetic. Believing that things are sub- 
ject to law, and that a knowledge of laws is advantageous in 



ARITHMETIC 245 

life, the observer commonly repeats his observations on num- 
bers in order to discover the laws (general truths). Four spe- 
cies of such general truths may thus be discovered : (1) Laws 
to which, as determined by the nature of number, there can 
obviously be no exceptions, and which are commonly termed 
Axioms, as " The whole is greater than any of its parts" ; (2) 
Laws to which, as contained in axioms, there can obviously 
be no exceptions, and which are commonly termed Principles, 
as " Multiplying the denominator or dividing the numerator 
of a fraction by any number, divides the fraction by that 
number" ; (3) Laws to which, since they are not obvious con- 
tents of axioms, there may be exceptions, and which are com- 
monly termed Theorems, as a^ + ^ + 41 = a Prime Number, 
ov {x -\-y) {x — y)^^a? — 'if ', and (4) Laws to which, as deter- 
mined by experiment, it is convenient to conform in perform- 
ing number- operations, and which are commonly termed Rules, 
as " Invert the divisor and proceed as in multiplication." 
Though many general truths of arithmetic have been discov- 
ered by induction, as just explained, all of them except axioms, 
and possibly these, too, can be obtained by deduction. The 
latter method requires greater maturity of mind, and there- 
fore belongs as a task to higher courses in arithmetic. 

Deduction in Arithmetic. (1) Induction in the larger 
sense, the sense in which it is taken in the preceding pages on 
arithmetic, implies deduction in its narrow sense, as means by 
which to verify the hypotheses that prompt observers to repeat 
their observations. If, for instance, it be found that the cir- 
cumference of the circle is equal to its diameter multiplied by 
3.1416 (particular truth), it may be supposed that such wall 
be the case with all circles ; but this hypothesis must be veri- 
fied by satisfactory experiments. Each experiment begins 
with the assumption that the hypothesis is a general truth, 
and is therefore a deduction in the narrow sense. If all these 
deductions confirm the hypothesis, the induction is complete, 



246 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

and may be expressed as follows : {a) The multiplication of 
this diameter by 3.1416 gave the circumference of this circle; 
(6) The deductive experiments represent all possibilities ; there- 
fore, (c) The muliplication of the diameter by 3.1416 always 
gives the circumference of a circle (a separate general truth of 
complete Induction). The deductions involved in complete 
induction are generally sub-conscious processes ; but they are 
nevertheless always present. (2) Having discovered general 
truths in arithmetic, the student may derive less general truths 
from these, and solve problems as particular cases. The pos- 
sibility of solving problems as examples of a class, justifies 
the hard labor involved in complete induction and constitutes 
the practical argument in favor of arithmetic as a branch of 
study in our schools. 

The Definition of Arithmetic. The method of study just de- 
scribed, together with a systematic statement of truths, consti- 
tutes science. Arithmetic is therefore a science ; and, since its 
subject is " numbers," it is correctly defined as the science of 
numbers. The word numbers as a term in this definition 
must, however, be understood to include the number-opera- 
tions and the language of numbers and number-operations, 
since all these together constitute the " subject" of the science. 
And since one important end in view in the study of arith- 
metic is the attainment of skill in performing the number- 
operations, it is practically correct to define arithmetic in the 
terms of our authors as " The science of numbers and the art 
of computing with them." 

The History of Arithmetic. A complete treatment of this 
subject requires reference to the ibllowing points : (1) The his- 
tory of the various number-processes ; (2) The history of nu- 
meration and notation ; (3) The history of the discovery of 
geueral truths of arithmetic ; (4) The history of the services 
of arithmetic in practical and theoretical spheres ; and (5) The 
history of the pioneers and masters of arithmetic. A complete 



ARITHMETIC 247 

consideration of these topics would require too much space for 
our present limits, and an abridged treatment would be un- 
satisfactory. A knowledge of the history of arithmetic is, 
however, not only interesting to thoughtful students, but of 
great importance to teachers of arithmetic. The history of 
arithmetic prepares the teacher of arithmetic to appreciate 
arithmetic, and therefore makes it more likely that earnest 
work will be done in teaching arithmetic. Accordingly, 
school teachers are respectfully referred to such helpful works 
as (1) "The Philosophy of Arithmetic/' by Dr. Edward 
Brooks; (2) "The History of Mathematics," by Florian 

Cajori. 

B. INSTRUCTION IN ARITHMETIC. 

The nature of arithmetic makes inquiry into the following 
subjects a necessity for teachers of arithmetic : (1) The Courses 
of Instruction in Arithmetic; (2) The Ends in View; (3) 
The Methods of Instruction ; (4) Written Arithmetic ; (5) 
Mental Arithmetic ; and (6) The Importance of Arithmetic. 

THE COURSES OF ARITHMETIC. 

The courses of instruction in arithmetic, as in other branches, 
are determined by at least three important factors : (1) The 
evolution of arithmetic ; (2) The pupil's possible progress ; 
and (3) The needs of life and science. 

The Evolution of Arithmetic. Three degrees of difficulty 
are distinguishable in the study of arithmetic : (1) The stage 
of obvious relations, when the numbers in question do not pass 
perception, and required operations, as well as the required 
thoughts, are simple ; (2) The stage of remoter relations, when 
the numbers in question require imagination as a supplement 
to perception, and the required operations, or their applications 
to life and science, are complex ; and (3) The stage of remotest 
relations, when the numbers in question pass imagination, and 
the required operations, or their applications to life and science, 



248 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

are very complex. These three degrees of difficulty must be 
respected. (See Principles of Instruction.) 

The Pupil's Progress. Psychology discovers three stages 
of possibility in study : (1) The stage of dependence, when con- 
crete thinking predominates very much over abstract thinking, 
and imitation (Principles of Knowledge) is the rule ; (2) The 
stage of transition, when abstract thinking is closely coordinate 
with concrete thinking, and the pupil depends more upon his 
own resources ; and (3) The stage of independence, when ab- 
stract thinking predominates over concrete thinking, and the 
pupil depends virtually upon his own resources. These stages 
of possibility must be respected. (See the First, Second, and 
Third Principles of Instruction.) 

The Needs of Life and Science. The needs of life and 
science cannot aifect the order in which the subjects and phases 
of arithmetic should follow each other, since these are abso- 
lutely a matter of relation between the subject and the pupil ; 
but these needs, unless indeed schools owe nothing to life, and 
science can shift without arithmetic, must be recognized in de- 
termining how much arithmetic a pupil should study. (See 
the Fifth General Principle of Education, and the Fourth 
Principle of Instruction.) 

The Necessary Courses of Arithmetic. If the matter of 
arithmetic must be adjusted to the stages of the pupil's possi- 
bility (First Principle of Instruction) and to his lot (Fourth 
Principle of Instruction), there must evidently be the follow- 
ing courses of instruction: (1) The Elementary Course; (2) 
The Intermediate Course ; and (3) The Higher Course. 

I. ELEMENTARY ARITHMETIC. 

The distinctive features of instruction in elementary arith- 
metic arrange themselves under three heads : (1) The Ends in 
View ; (2) The Method of Instruction ; and (3) The Order of 
Subjects. 



ARITHMETIC 249 

The Ends in View in Elementary Arithmetic. The 
right ends (see Principles of Education) in view in elementary 
arithmetic are as follows : (1) To build such number-concepts 
(integral, fractional, and denominate), and such concepts of 
operation (synthesis, analysis, and comparison) as may be pos- 
sible by way of perceptive experiments, and such number-lan- 
guage (speaking, writing, and reading) as may be necessary in 
these tasks ; (2) To train pupils to perform the " four" opera- 
tions (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division) as 
intelligently, accurately, quickly, and neatly, as possible, first 
with integers, then with fractions, and finally with denominate 
numbers ; (3) To develop the power to work such problems as 
arise in the young pupil's life, and such disciplinary exercises 
as good sense may dictate ; and (4) To develop some ability 
in describing numbers and operations, and in explaining obvious 
relations. 

The Method of Instruction in Elementary Arithmetic. 
The logical genesis of knowledge (see " Principles of Knowl- 
edge," and " The Psychology of Arithmetic") determines the 
method of instruction. (See Fifth Principle of Instruction.) 
Therefore (see Tenth Principle of Instruction) the tasks of in- 
struction in elementary arithmetic (see preceding paragraph) 
can be accomplished only by the "development" method, 
whose conspicuous features, as explained, are (1) Observation, 
(2) Induction, and (3) Deduction. 

Teaching the Number- Concepts. The events in the practical 
development of the number-concepts are perception, concep- 
tion, expression, and recognition. (1) Inasmuch as numbers 
must at first be thought as the " how many" of things, things 
are the indispensable means in lessons on numbers. The pupil 
must be required to observe the number (how many) in any 
convenient collection of objects, such as beans, splints, strokes, 
etc. The attention of the pupil in these observations must be 
kept upon the number rather than upon the nature and rela- 



250 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

tion of the objects observed. The required attention is more 
complex than it seems ; it really amounts to perception, direct 
comparison, and abstraction. (2) The successive abstractions 
in this process of attention, supply the pupil's mind with the 
particulars out of which he spontaneously builds his concept 
of the number in question, as one, three, five. (3) The name 
of the number must, of course, be associated with the idea of 
the number to be taught, as " five." (See First Principle of 
Knowledge.) The pupil should be required to write and read, 
as well as speak, the name of the number which he is learning, 
although, in order to keep the pupil from thinking simply signs 
instead of numbers, the writing and reading ought to be omitted 
the first few weeks. (4) The pupil really defines a number to 
himself in his conception of the number, formed, as just ex- 
plained, by counting objects ; but such conceptions should be 
reinforced by many recogiiitions of the number learned. It is 
by means of such deductive recognitions that the pupil's induc- 
tions (conceptions) become his permanent possessions. 

Teaching the Concepts of Operation. When the pupil knows 
of " how many" a number, as " four," consists ; that is, when 
he has learned the number as a " quantity," he should be led 
to see the possible arrangements of the " units" of which the 
quantity is constituted. In other words, objects must be so 
placed, let us say on a table, that the pupil comprehends the 
following abstract truths in the concrete : 



4 = 1-^1 + 1 + 1 


4 — 1 = 3 


4 = 1X4 


4--l=4 


4=2+1+1 


4 — 2 = 2 


4 = 2X2 


4-=-2 = 2 


4 = 3 + 1 


4 — 3 = 1 






4 = 2 + 2 


4 — 4 = 







As soon as possible (see Principles of Instruction) the pupil 
should be required to record his experiments by means of 
signs and figures, as in the text. The end in view in all such 
elementary exercises (perceptive experiments) is to teach the 



ARITHMETIC 251 

concepts of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. 
The systematic treatment of the numbers from one to a hun- 
dred, and even beyond that, in the way just described, is 
sometimes called the " Grube Method," in honor of the cele- 
brated German who first developed these exercises into a sys- 
tem. (See Professor Seeley's excellent adaptation of the Grube 
system to American schools.) 

Teaching Number-Language. The Arabic number- language 
(see page 243) is composite. Accordingly (see the Second 
Principle of Instruction), the method of teaching it is by 
" synthesis of elements." The process of teaching number- 
language should begin, as explained in the paragraph on 
" Teaching the Number-Concepts," with the oral names of 
the numbers, as one, two, three, etc. These names should 
also be written and read as soon as these abstract exercises are 
appropriate. When the pupil has learned to speak, write, and 
read the elements of the Arabic number-language, the follow- 
ing exercises should be taken up in order : (1) Ten and one, 
ten and two, etc., up to ten and nine, should be illustrated by 
means of objects. The names eleven, twelve, etc., up to 
twenty, must, of course, be added by associating them with 
the names ten and one, ten and two, etc. (2) The pupil 
should next be taught to count two tens and one, etc., up to 
nine tens and nine, the names twenty-one, etc., being added 
as before. (3) The numbers from one hundred to one thou- 
sand may be illustrated by means of bundles of splints, etc. 
(4) At any time after the pupil has learned to write nine, he 
may be taught to write ten and two, ten and one, and then 
ten, to help him see the use of zero. Thus: 1 | 2, 1 | 1, 1 | 0. 
This lesson on " place- value" is the " key" lesson to the Arabic 
system of notation and numeration ; it is the key lesson to all 
the higher number-groups. (5) When the pupil has learned 
to write as far as nine tens and nine, he must be taught to 
call the collection of ten tens one hundred, writing it 1 | | 0. 



252 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

The terms units, tens, and hundreds should now be introduced, 
the " numeration" at first always preceding the " reading" of 
the number. (6) When the pupil has learned to write, numer- 
ate, and read as far as nine hundred ninety-nine, he must be 
taught to call the collection of ten hundred one thousand, 
writing it 1 | | | 0. (7) Finally, the pupil must be taught 
that higher groups, as millions, billions, etc., are formed by 
multiplying the lower group by one hundred instead of ten. 
This concept can be taught most conveniently by the follow- 
ing arrangement, the same figures being used for all groups at 
first in order to simplify the conception. Thus : 



Millions, 


Thousands, 




h t u 
12 5 


h t u 
1 2 5 


ll t u 
1 2 5 



Of course, it must not be forgotten that while these les- 
sons on number-language are being given, the Grube exer- 
cises are to be continued and the " four" operations devel- 
oped into formal addition, subtraction, multiplication, and 
division. 

Teaching the Number -Operations. The pupil is ready (see 
First and Second Principles of Instruction) for lessons in 
formal addition and subtraction as soon as he has made a fair 
start in the Grube exercises. It is better to teach addition 
and subtraction together, the two being natural complements, 
and easily illustrated as complements. The pupil is ready for 
lessons in formal multijilication and division as soon as he 
knows the required " tables." It is better to teach multipli- 
cation and division together, not only because they are natural 
complements, but also because the same " tables" can be used. 
The " four" ojxirations and the construction of the " tables," 
must be made the subject of as many observations as may be 
necessary for the pupil's understanding and memory. (1) The 



ARITHMETIC 253 

teacher must work illustrative examples, the pupil observing 
and remembering the process, thus reasoning from the partic- 
ular cases to the " rule." (2) The pupil must be made to un- 
derstand that he "carries," "borrows," passes "toward the 
left," or " toward the right," in the " four" operations, be- 
cause he can thus utilize the " place value" of the figures in 
his notations. This process of reasoning from the first uses 
of " place" in notation to others, and still others, even to its 
general use, is not as difficult an induction for pupils as is 
sometimes supposed, provided that the new cases are properly 
graded from the simple to the complex. Objective illus- 
trations are, of course, necessary in the earliest explanations. 
(3) Many exercises (deductions) must be added in order to 
reinforce the pupil's inductions, to make them permanent pos- 
sessions, and to develop speed, as well as accuracy and neat- 
ness in performing the operations. (4) Common fractions, 
decimal fractions, and denominate numbers, should be gradu- 
ally introduced into the " four" operations, but the tasks must 
be carefully graded. (5) The pupil's impressions will be deep- 
ened and corrected very effectively by the effort to describe 
and explain, while at the same time there will be a great gain 
for the pupil's language. 

Teaching Exercises and Problems. The pupil should be re- 
quired to work exercises in which the " four" operations, or as 
many of them as are known to the pupil, are so combined as 
to tax and thus develop his thinking powers. (See the First, 
Second, Sixth, and Seventh Principles of Instruction.) In 
the same way and for the same reason, as well as in the 
interests of practical life, concrete problems should be con- 
structed for the pupil. The teacher should not be too ready 
to assist his pupils in such exercises and problems ; he should, 
however, give them such directions, ask such questions, and 
prepare such paths, as will enable them to help themselves. 
(See the Eighth Principle of Instruction.) 



264 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

The Means in Elementary Arithmetic. The course in ele- 
mentary arithmetic should extend through the pupil's first five 
years. (See the First, Third, and Fourth Principles of Instruc- 
tion.) (1) So far as the understanding of the child is in ques- 
tion, it matters very little whether books be used or not, since 
written language will be used in board-assignments as well as 
in books. Probably it would be best for several reasons to 
use no books the first two years, great care being taken in 
that event to write the questions very plainly in a conspicuous 
place, so as to save the pupil's eyes. An appropriate book 
should be used after the second year, both as a matter of econ- 
omy in time, and as an instrument in the educational transi- 
tion of the child. As a moral precaution, the work required 
of elementary arithmetic pupils between recitations should be 
done in school hours and under the teacher's eye. (2) The 
questions should often be recited without resort to figures in 
the performance of the necessary number-operations, and in 
complete sentences ; but generally the reasoning process should 
be expressed only in outline by means of figures and such 
supplementary words as may be necessary. In such a com- 
promise between " mental" and " written" arithmetic, the 
former will serve as a special discipline in analysis and 
language; the latter will save time and train in practical 
speed. 

The Order of Subjects in Elementary Arithmetic. The 
submitted list of subjects is a catalogue of things to be taught 
in elementary arithmetic, and somewhat in order: (1) The 
concepts of the integral numbers, together with counting, 
Grube exercises, and the necessary number-language. (2) The 
" four" operations with integral numbers, together with the 
necessary "tables," number-language, Grube exercises, and 
concrete problems. (3) The concepts of the common fractions, 
together with the corresponding Grube exercises, progress in 
the four operations with integers, progress in notation and 



ARITHMETIC 255 

numeration, progress in concrete problems, and progress in ex- 
planation. (4) The rules of the four operations with common 
fractions, together with " speed" drills and progress in former 
subjects. (5) The concepts of the decimal fractions, together 
with the rules of the four decimal operations and progress 
in all preceding subjects. (6) The concepts of the simpler 
denominate numbers, together with the four operations, the 
necessary tables, and progress in all preceding subjects. 

Illustrative Lessons in Elementary Arithmetic. The 
subjoined lessons are designed to be illustrations of the devel- 
opment method (observation, induction, and deduction) in ele- 
mentary arithmetic. 

The Concept " Five." Teacher. How many grains of 
corn have I just now placed before you, James ? James. Four 
and one. T. Yes ; four and one, or five. Please pick up five 
books and take them to Jane. Count five cracks in the floor, 
touching each place with this pointer. Which of the cracks 
is five, Miriam ? Miriam. It takes all of them together to 
make five. T. Please arrange these splints in fives, like this, 
#. ft etc. 

The Grube Treatment of " Pour." Teacher. "What have 
I done, Henry ? Henry. You placed four blocks on the table. 
T. Please arrange them in a row, placing them a little way 
apart from each other. What can you now say about the 
four blocks ? H. Four blocks are one and one and one and 
one block. T. Please record what you have found out. 
(Henry writes on the board, as he has been instructed, 4 = 1 
+ 1 + 1+1.) T. Move the first block against the second. 
What can you now say about the four blocks, Annie ? Annie. 
Four blocks are two blocks and one block and one block. T. 
Please record right below our first record. Now arrange them 
in another way, James. James. This way four is two and 
two, but if I place them thus, four is three and one. T. Very 
well ; now record your facts. The blocks, as you see, are all 



256 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

together. Please take one away, James, and tell what is true 
of four. James. Four less one is three. T. Dodd, you may 
keep the record at the board to the end of the recitation. 
James, put back the block which you took. Now, Mabel, 
give me two blocks, and tell what is true of four and the 
two. Mabel. Four less two is two. T. Take three away. 
Four. Yes, Dodd, your record is correct. Now put the 
blocks right in front of James and close together. How 
many times — I mean how often — can you touch a different 
block until you have touched them all, James ? James. I can 
touch four times. T. Then how many time§ one is four, 
James? James. Four is four times one. T. How many 
times can you touch all the blocks at once, James ? James. 
Only one time. T. Four is how many times four? James. 
Four is one tim,e four. T. Put the blocks totrether as^ain. 
Mabel, please take two blocks from the table. How often can 
you take two from four ? Mabel. I can do it two times. T. 
Then how many times does four allow you to take two away ? 
Mabel. Two times. T. Yes ; four contains two just two times. 
Now how many times does four "contain" four? Mabel. 
Four contains four only one time. T. How many times does 
four contain onef M. Four contains one Jour times. T. 
Please take these splints, each of you only four, and arrange 
them as we arranged the blocks. Write the records on your 
slate, and let me see them when you recite again. (By and by, 
when the pupils know the meanings of the signs -\-, — , X, 
-=-, very well, they should be requested to tliink all the possi- 
bilities of a number, and record the facts by means of the 
signs in an orderly way.) 

The Names of Numbers. Teacher. Please count the 
splints on the table before you, James. J. There are nine. 
T. Write the figure "nine." (Handing another splint to 
James.) How many are there now ? James. Ten. T. Please 
write what you said. J. I do not know how. T. You will 



ARITHMETIC 257 

be able to write ten by and by. Now, suppose we tie ten 
splints into a bundle, and call it " one ten." How many will 
there be, if we add two splints ? James. There will be " one 
ten" and two. T. Yes ; one ten and two, or, as we say, 
" twelve." (The new names are introduced by " association.") 
Now watch, and I will show you how to loinie " twelve," 
that is, " one ten" and two. I will write the " one ten" to the 
Ze/i! of the figure 1, as you see. Can you write "one ten" 
and one, Annie ? J.. I think I can. (Writes.) T. That is 
right. Now, James, can you write ten, that is, " one" ten ? 
J. I must write the figure 1 to the left, but I do not know 
what to write to the right of the figure 1. T. How many 
moix than ten splints have you? James. I have no more 
than ten. T. Then, to show that you have no more than 
" one" ten, you must wi'ite this — it is called " zero" — to the 
right of the figure 1 . Now write ten and six. That is correct. 
Now change the word " ten" into " teen," and say six before it. 
James. Sixteen. T. Please write ten and nine, Jennie. What 
may we say instead of ten and nine ? J. Nineteen. T. Now 
write ten and ten, Jennie. J. Ten and ten is "two tens." 
Must I write the figure 2 to the left and to the right? 
T. That is just what you must do. (Jennie writes.) T. We 
said twelve instead of ten and two, so we say " twenty" in- 
stead of " two tens." Please write " two tens" and three. 
What other name will do ? J. J. think we can say twenty 
and three. T. Yes ; twenty and three, or, because it is a little 
shorter, " twenty -three." (New names thus introduced should 
always be written on the board, and fixed in the child's mem- 
ory. The pupil should, therefore, write these names as often 
as necessary.) 

" Carrying." Teacher. Please add the first column of this 
problem. What is your answer, Mary? M. It is fifteen. 
T. What can you say instead of fifteen ? M. " One ten" and 
five. T. Where are the two figures, 1 and 5, to be placed ? 

17 



258 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

M. Perhaps the figure 5 should be placed under the first col- 
umn, and the figure 1 under the second. T. Why do you 
thmk so, Mary? M. The second column is a column of 
" tens" (the pupil has learned this before), and the figure 1 is 
" one ten." T. That is a good thought, Mary ; but instead 
of putting the " one ten" down at once, " carry" it over into 
the second column, and add it to the sum of the second col- 
umn. M. That makes "eleven tens." T. Now, what will 
you do with the " eleven tens," Mary ? M. " Eleven tens," or 
" ten tens" and " one ten," is the same as " one hundred" and 
" one ten." (This fact was learned in a preceding lesson on no- 
tation and numeration.) I must write the " one ten" under the 
" tens" column, and the " one hundred" to the left. T. Have 
you a " hundreds" column to add ? M. No, sir. T. What 
right have you to write " one hundred" to the left of " one 
ten" in your answer ? M. I think it must be put there be- 
cause it would be put there if we had a " hundreds" column 
to add. T. You have answered correctly. We must now 
try a problem with a " hundreds" column in it. Please work 
these three problems (constructing them) for your afternoon 
recitation. (Speed-drills should usually follow.) 

" Borrowing-." Teacher. Please read this problem (point- 
ing to the board), Florence. F. From 609 take 235. T. 
The class may work it. Please go to the board (They 
work). (Seeing that the class hesitates after " 5 from 9 leaves 
4") What is the trouble, Frank? F. There is no "ten" 
from which to take " three tens." T. What do people some- 
times do to get money to pay a debt? F. Father borrowed 
money from Mr. Jones to pay for our wagon. T. Suppose, 
then, that you " borrow" " one" from our zero's left neighbor. 
How many " tens" is the borrowed " one" worth ? F. It is 
equal to " ten tens." (This was learned in preceding lessons 
on notation and numeration.) T. What can you do now? 
Grace. Three from ten leaves seven (putting it down). T. 



ARITHMETIC 259 

Can you all work your problem now? (They work, but 
Frank forgets that he borrowed " one" from neighbor " six.") 
T. How did you get " four" as your last figure, Frank ? F. 
I took two from six, and had four left. Emma (raising her 
hand). Frank should have said "■ two from five." (Frank, 
seeing his error, makes the necessary correction.) T. Please 
solve the following problems (writing them), and bring them 
this afternoon. (Speed-drills in adding and subtracting 
should follow. The teacher should encourage self-dependence 
in these young workers.) 

The "Three Times" Table. Teacher (standing at the 
board). How many times have I written the figure 3, George ? 
G. Only one time. T, Then one time 3 is how many ? G. 
One time 3 is 3. T. I will write what you said (writing 
3X1 = 3). T. How many times have I written the figure 3 
now ? Class. Two times. T. Please add the two 3's. How 
many does it make? C. Six. T. Then 2 times 3 is how 
many? Netoton. Two times 3 is 6. T. Please write it 
under (3X1= 3). (Newton writes (3x2 = 6).) Can 
you now take 3 three times, and write it down? Four 
times, etc. ? 

Taught in this cofistruciive way, the multiplication tables 
will be understood, and can be readily reproduced by the 
pupils. These reconstructions should, of course, be required. 
The pupil should speak as well as ivrite the tables, until it can be 
done very rapidly, " forward" at first, and then " backward." 
When these things have been done (by adding and subtract- 
ing), the tables should be drilled into " memories," i.e., they 
should be made "automatic." The figures from 1 to 12 may 
be arranged in a circle (the " table-figure" in the centre), for 
drill. This is the trying stage in the mastery of a multiplica- 
tion table, but the work must be done if the tables are ever to 
serve their purpose, namely, economy in multiplication and 
division. JProblems involving the tables as far as known 



260 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

should be assigned in great numbers, until the tables become 
permanent and serviceable possessions. 

Multiplying. Where to place the multiplier, with which 
figures to multiply in order, and how to place the partial 
products, must be taught, as in the preceding lessons, by ob- 
servation of examples, thus requiring induction in order to 
think the " rule" and deductive exercises to fix it. The 
reasons for the steps can be taught a little later by generalizing 
the concept of " place" in notation. (The methods-student 
should be required to write out the recitations as illustrated.) 

Dividing-. Where to place the divisor, dividend, and quo- 
tient, how to proceed in short division, how to proceed in long 
division, and how to use the multiplication tables in division, 
and how to do whatever else must be done, must be taught in 
the same way as above. It is believed that " long" division 
is more complex than " short" division, and that it should, 
therefore, be introduced a little later. The teacher should 
work the same problem both ways side by side on the board, 
so that the pupils can see that long and short division are sim- 
ply two modes of getting the same result. The divisor in this 
contrast of long and short division should be less than 10 at 
first. (The methods-student should be required to write out 
the recitation.) 

Speed-Drills in the Four Operations. Among the most im- 
portant deductive exercises in arithmetic are speed-drills, i.e., 
practice in rapid adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing. 
The ability to perform these operations rapidly without mis- 
take is a great practical advantage. 

(1) The ability to add rapidly without mistake is probably 
the least common and the most important. Pupils should be 
taught to add by 2's, 3's, 4's, 5's, 6's, 7's, 8's, etc., and then 
irregularly. These drills should sometimes be conducted with- 
out the aid of figures, and sometimes with figures. 

(2) Finding the sum and difference of any two numbers is 



ARITHMETIC 261 

an excellent exercise for the development of arithmetical 
speed. In these exercises the teacher may proceed in two 
ways : (a) He may write some number, as 7, on the board, 
and then name other numbers, as 4, 3, 6, etc., expecting the 
pupil or pupils to tell the sum and difference at once. (6) 
He may name two numbers each time, as 5 and 8, expecting 
the pupUs to say IS, 3, at once. At first the answers may be 
given in sentences, " The sum of 5 and 8 is 13 ; the difference 
is 3." 

(3) Four columns of figures headed +, — , X, and -=- re- 
spectively, all beginning with 1 and ending with the figure to 
which the class has reached in multij^lication and division, 
should be used as a speed-drill in the four operations. ^\Tien, 
for example, the class has studied the " 9 times" table, the 
columns should be written thus : 

+ — X ^ 



1 


1 


1 


1 


2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


3 


4 


4 


4 


4 


5 


5 


5 


5 


6 


6 


6 


6 


7 


7 


7 


7 


8 


8 


8 


8 


9 


9 


9 


9 



The teacher points to any figure in any column, avoiding 
" remainders," and the pupil or pupils at once name the sum, 
difference, product, or quotient. 

The " Fraction" Concepts. Teacher. "V\'hat have I done, 
!Mary ? J/. You have broken a stick of candy into three pieces. 
T. Please hold the pieces side by side. What is true, class ? 
C. The pieces are alike. T. What may we call one of the 
three " equal parts" into which the candy was broken, Paul ? 
P. A three-part. T. Yes ; a three-part, or a third. How 



262 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

many thirds do I liold iij) now? P. Two tliirds. (Similar 
(juostions should be usod with other divisions, cuts, breaks, 
etc., until the puj)il sees how to name the parts, and why.) 
Teacher. What might we call one or more equal ])arts of a 
thing? (No one can t(!ll.) One or more of the equal parts of 
a thing, is called a Fra(;tion. James, what is a fracticm? 
Th(! class may think of three-fourths. Jane, can you show 
me three-fourths of this apple (handing her a knife) ? Harry, 
please take these beans and arrange them in four ecpial heaps. 
How many beans are there in all ? How many are tliere in 
each heap? What may we call one; of these equal heaps of 
beans? Then, what is one-fourth of twelve? Three-fourths? 
How many fourtlis are there in all? 

The "Terms" of a Fraction. TeacJier. What is one of 
the four ecjual i)arts of this api)l(! called, Ralph? li. One- 
iburth. T. Please write the word on the board. (Jlalph 
writes " one-fourth.") Teacher. Let me write it. (Writes it 

thus (""^rth) ^^ ^^^^> ^"^ *^^^" h) I"t^ ^^o^^ many paiis 
have I divided this a})])le, class? C. Into four parts. T. 
Which figure shows it, Clara? C. The figure 4. T That 
"4" is called the Denominator (writing the word). What 
does the denominator show, James? How many ])art,s do I 
hold in my left hand? Class. One. T. Please point to the 
figure which shows how many parts I have taken, (JIalph 
points to the figure above the line.) T. That " 1" is called 
the Numerator. Nell, what is the numerator of a fraction ? 
(Many drills will be necessary to makv the terms learned })er- 
manent possessions of the pupil's understanding and memory.) 
Two-Thirds and Four-Sixths. Teacher. Into how many 
(•(jual })ai-ts have J divided this circle (pointing to it)? What 
is ^mv. j)art called, Herbert? H. One-third. T. What are 
two parts called? IL Two-thirds. T. Please divide each 
third into two equal {)arts. How many })arts are there in all ? 
What is one of your six equal parts called? How many 



ARITHMETIC 263 

sixths are there in two-thirds? How many thirds can you 
make out of four-sixtlis? Six-sixths? (In all these lessons — 
and there should be many with many variations in the means — 
the l)U])il should be conduct<;d from the concrete to the abstract, 
and fr(jm the simj)le to the com])Iex.) 

Two-Thirds of Three-Fourths. Teacher. Please draw a 
square, and divide it intf) four equal parts, Bessie ? What is 
one of your parts called? Now divide each fourth into three 
equal parts. How many parts arc there in all ? What is one 
of these small parts called ? What part of one-fourth is one- 
twelfth ? How many twelfths docs it take to make two-thirds 
of (me-fourth ? Two-thirds of three-fourths ? I will now 
show you how to get the same answer with figures. What 
have I done, Walter? W. You have multiplied the numera- 
tors, 2 and 3, together and written the 6 as a numerator. T. 
And now ? W. You have multiplied the denominat^^rs, 3 and 
4, together and written the 12 as new denominator. T. What 
can 1 do to make the six-twelfths one-half? W. Divide both 
numbers by 6. (By and by, but not at first, the device of 
cancelling should be introduced into such problems.) 

Division by Fractions. Teacher. If James can drink two 
pints of milk a day, how many days will it take him to drink 
six pints, Jacob ? J. It will take him just three days. T. 
How did you get your answer ? ./. I divided 6 by 2. T. 
Then, if James (;ould drink only a half-pint every day, how 
must you reckon out how long it will take him to drink the 
six pints? J. I must divide by one-half. T. Please try it 
(James knows how to divide 6 by 2, but cannot divide 6 
by \) T. Let me show you, James. This is the problem 
(writes 6 — ^). It must be written thus (writes f X f = ^). 
What did I do to get the 12? /. You turned the divi- 
sor (^) upside down, and did what must be done in multi- 
plication. T Yes; I "inverted" the divisor, and proceeded 
as in multiplication. What then must we always do when the 



264 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

divisor is a fraction ? You may all go to the board. Please 
divide seven by three-fourths. (Other exercises must, of 
course, be added.) 

The reason for " inverting" the divisor when it is a fraction 
is too difficult at this point ; it is a question of " reciprocal re- 
lation," and requires abstract reasoning. But by and by the 
pupil must be led to see that if, for example, one (3-thirds) 
contains one (3-thirds) just one time, it must contain 2-thirds 
as often as 2 is contained into 3, or | ; that the " inversion" 
of the divisor (|), is the " quotient" of unity divided by the 
fraction ; and that this quotient must be multiplied by 6 to get 
the whole quotient. 

The " Decimal" Concepts. Teacher. Emily, what is one 
of ten equal parts of anything called? E. One-tenth. T. 
Please write it with figures. Let me show the class another 
way of writing Jjj^. (Writes .1.) What have I done ? George. 
You wrote the figure 1 with a dot before it. T. The dot 
stands for the 10 in -^-^, and is called the Decimal point. 
Please read this (pointing to .3). Frank. I think it is three- 
tenths. T. Is three-tenths a whole number ? F. It is a frac- 
tion. T. What, then, may we call the " 3" with a decimal 
point before it, Helen ? iJ. A decimal fraction. T. Please 
read this (writing .12). James (after a little silence on the 
part of the class). The one is one tenth, but I do not know 
what to call the 2. T. If the decimal point before one figure 
stands for 10, for what must it stand before two figures ? (The 
class comes to a dead halt, and the teacher must tell them 
that before two figures the decimal point stands for 100, before 
three figures for 1000, and that therefore .12 is read 12 hun- 
dredths, and .235 two hundred thirty-five thousandths. A little 
more drill will fix the mode of decimal notation and numera- 
tion.) 

The next lesson introduces the decimal operations, the teacher 
working examples, showing where to place the decimal point, 



ARITHMETIC 265 

until by induction the pupils learn the "rules." The best 
motto in all these lessons is to " make haste slowly," since, as 
the teacher well knows, percentage problems require absolute 
mastery of the decimal operations. 

The Denominate Numbers. (1) Every table should be 
built up concretely, i.e., by actual measurements. When, for 
example, the pupil has seen that 2 pints make a quart, 8 
quarts a peck, etc., the observations may be arranged into 
tables. These tables must, of course, for the sake of economy, 
be committed. This work is not difficult if the tables are 
properly built. (2) Playing " store" is a most interesting and 
effective way of combining a number of tables into practical 
use. (3) The denominate operations are to be taught by the 
development method, the teacher working examples and ask- 
ing such questions or adding such explanations as may help the 
pupil in his inductions. Plenty of practical work should be 
assigned, and the work should include both common and deci- 
mal fractions, though, of course, in the elementary course, all 
the operations should be simple enough for the pupil's present 
powers. (The methods-student should be required to teach 
illustrative lessons.) 

It is not supposed even for a moment that every teacher 
will develop a concept or a rule in just the same language or 
the same syllogisms, but all can work out the development 
ideal. 

II. INTERMEDIATE ARITHMETIC. 

The intermediate course, i.e., the course of remoter relations 
(see page 247), belongs for that reason to the period of life 
commonly called the "Grammar School" period. It should 
extend from the age of about eleven years to that of fourteen. 
The special features of intermediate arithmetic fall naturally 
under the following heads : (1) The Ends in View ; (2) The 
Methods of Instruction; (3) The Order of Subjects; (4) 
Written Arithmetic ; and (5) Mental Arithmetic. 



266 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

The Ends in View in Intermediate Arithmetic. The 
things to be accomplished in the couvse of intermediate arith- 
metic are as follows : (1) Great proficiency in the subjects taken 
up in the elementary course, and (2) Advancement to such 
subjects as by reason of their greater complexity afford harder 
discipline and such as are necessary in the expanded and still 
expanding life of the pupil. These points are so obvious that 
they require no extended development, and will be assumed in 
the following pages. 

The Method of Instruction in Intermediate Arithmetic. 
The nature of the new subjects to which the pupil is to be in- 
troduced in intermediate arithmetic requires, as was explained 
(see page 247), no new method ; but, since arithmetic is to be 
developed into a useful art, deduction, the form of reasoning 
that applies general truths to the details of life, must be 
allowed to predominate over induction. The opportunity for 
deductive reasoning, as was pointed out (see page 247), is very 
great. Two topics deserve our special attention at this time : 

(1) The Development of Concepts, Rules, and Axioms ; and 

(2) The Derivation of Principles and Rules. 

Tlie Development of Concepts in Intermediate Arithmetic. 
Such concepts as ratio, proportion, percentage, progression, 
involution, and evolution, must obviously be developed by 
observation of examples, consequent induction, and proof 
deductions. 

The Development of Rules in Intermediate Arithmetic. Pupils 
in arithmetic should seldom, except in mensuration and sev- 
eral other cases, be allowed to work '' by rule." Work " by 
rule" is almost certain to dwarf the analytic habit so desirable 
in good thinking. Therefore, rules in intermediate arithmetic, 
with the exceptions as stated, should be developed as before 
by analytic observation of examples and such induction as 
will always look for variations in new problems. 

The Development of Axioms. Axioms are generally defined 



AEITHMETIC 267 

as self-evident truths. The belief has prevailed that axioms 
are absolutely a priori truths, i.e., truths at which the mind 
arrives \\dthout the inductive process. This conclusion is 
probably incorrect. It is altogether likely that axioms differ 
from other general truths only in this, that they are obviously 
undeniable and universal. Induction is, however, as it ap- 
pears, their real origin, though the wonderful thing about 
these inductions is the " reach" to which the young mind 
arrives so early in life. Indeed, the axioms of arithmetic are 
all present in the child's mind before " lessons" begin. Take, 
for example, the axiom that " The whole is greater than any 
of its parts." Somewhere in childhood, nobody knows when, 
the mind virtually thought the subjoined syllogism : 

' ' This whole is greater than any of its parts ; 
This whole is a sample of all wholes ; 
Therefore, any whole is greater than any of its parts." 

But, although the child has probably arrived at all the axioms 
of arithmetic by induction long before it could state the syllo- 
gism, it is obviously a splendid discipline for an intermediate 
pupil to illustrate the origin of the various axioms and to state 
the syllogisms in which they are the conclusion. 

The Derivation of Principles. Principles, as was shown on 
page 245, can be developed by induction, as in the case of 
factoring, and should be so developed ; but, as a most effective 
discipline, they should also be derived from axioms, i.e., they 
should be demonstrated, or proved, deductively. Take, for 
example, the principle that " Dividing the denominator of a 
fraction by any number multiplies the value of the fraction 
by that number." This truth should first be illustrated in the 
concrete, and developed by induction ; but it should then be 
referred to the axiom one of whose derivatives it is, and 
proved by deductive reasoning. The principle in question 
rests on the axiom that " A whole is the sum of all its parts." 



268 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

Dividing the denominator by any number is the same as di- 
viding a whole into fewer parts, each of which must also be 
the sum of the smaller parts that would have been the results 
of dividing the whole by a larger number, and the larger parts 
must obviously be as much larger as the number by which it 
was proposed to divide the denominator. Accordingly, " Di- 
viding the denominator, etc." The principles of the " four" 
operations, and those of fractions and factoring, should be thus 
proved in intermediate arithmetic. Much of this work of de- 
duction, of course, cannot be done before the high-school period. 
The Derivation of Rules. It is a great satisfaction to the 
mind, and a great practical advantage, to be able to show that 
rules can be gotten from principles, just as principles can be 
derived from axioms ; and a still greater conquest, to be able 
to get original rules from given principles. Take, for ex- 
ample, the rule for finding the " greatest common divisor" of 
fractions. The rule should be developed " by trial," i.e., by 
observation and induction ; but it should also be deduced from 
the principle that " Dividing the numerator of a fraction, or 
multiplying its denominator, by any number, divides the 
value of the fraction by that number." Suppose the fractions 
to be f , I", -|, and -^q. The " greatest common divisor" is 
wanted, i.e., the largest number that will divide all the frac- 
tions exactly. How shall it be done? Referring to our 
principle, we are told how to proceed in case of one frac- 
tion ; we must divide the numerator and multiply the denom- 
inator. Having treated all the numerators "by trial," we 
find the greatest common dividing number to be 2. The " least 
common multiple" of the denominators must, according to the 
stated principle, be the divisor wanted, since it contains all the 
old denominators, i.e., divides them exactly. Therefore, in 
the proposed problem the G. C. D. is ^. Much of this 
work of deduction must, by reason of the dependence of 
arithmetic on geometry and algebra, be deferred to a later 



ARITHMETIC 269 

course in arithmetic. Such is the case with the rules of men- 
suration. Many rules, such as those of fractions, etc., can, 
however, be referred to principles even in intermediate classes. 

The Problems of Intermediate Arithmetic. The prob- 
lems of intermediate arithmetic should, in accordance with the 
ends in view, be complex enough for higher discipline, and 
practical enough for the ends of life. Intermediate pupils 
should be required to work problems with very little aid from 
anybody, to state solutions in the best forms, and to explain 
the problems in strictest logic. These requirements are ap- 
plicable to both written and mental arithmetic. 

The Order of Subjects in Intermediate Arithmetic. 
Those operations in which the conceptions are complex, and 
the relations somewhat remote, are the subjects of intermediate 
arithmetic. They are, as was shown in the beginning of this 
chapter, higher forms of the elementary conceptions and 
processes. The logical dependence of subjects in arithmetic 
determines their true order of presentation in text-books and 
lessons. In practice the order of subjects is determined by 
the adopted text-book. The arrangements of Brooks, Hull, 
and Prince, are possibly as satisfactory as any. 

a. WRITTEN ARITHMETIC. 

The special features of written arithmetic fall under the 
following heads : (1) Problems ; (2) Answers ; (3) Assign- 
ment of Lessons ; (4) Preparation of Lessons ; and (5) Reci- 
tation. These topics deserve attention in all the courses of 
arithmetic, but are most conveniently treated in intermediate 
arithmetic, since mental and written arithmetic are first sepa- 
rated in this course. 

The Problems of Written Arithmetic. The distinc- 
tion between written and mental arithmetic is pointed out on 
page 275. (1) Discipline is their common aim, and the prob- 
lems under the various rules should be so varied in conditions 



270 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

that they cannot be solved by any mechanical " the-rule-says- 
so." 

(2) Skill in computation, i.e., brevity of statement and speed 
in calculation, is the special aim of written arithmetic. The 
number, therefore, as well as the variety of problems under each 
subject, should be adapted to this special purpose. When the 
number of problems in the adopted text-book is not adequate 
— and this mustioften happen — supplementary problems must 
be provided. The proficient teacher will have no trouble in 
the performance of this duty ; teachers of all grades will find 
the books of Dr. John T. Prince (Arithmetic by Grades) very 
suggestive and heljsful. 

The Answers to Problems in Written Arithmetic. 
Authors of written arithmetics seem to believe that the an- 
swers of problems should accompany the text, or, if not that, 
they should at least be found in an appendix. Many teachers 
approve of such text-books. 

This position is open to grave objections. (1) Pupils will 
work for the answer, and, having obtained the given answer, 
they will not take the trouble to j^rove it. Of the two habits 
thus formed, that of depending on others is a poor preparation 
for life, and that of neglecting to prove truth is positively 
dangerous. (2) It is certainly possible to do without such 
answers. This has been practically demonstrated in the case 
of mental arithmetic, where they are seldom found and rarely 
desired. Moreover, pupils trained into the habit of proving 
their own answers from the beginning, will not need such 
make-shifts, while, at the same time, they are forming the 
valuable habits of self-dependence aud truth-seeking. It is, 
therefore, to be lamented that our school arithmetics contain 
such objectionable helps. 

. The question arises, Why do our authors give these answers, 
and why do many teachers want such books? The answer 
consists of two items : (1) Authors are required to give such 



ARITHMETIC 271 

helps because the mass of teachers demand it ; and (2) The 
demand grows out of the feeling of dependence which, through 
this very blunder in text-books, has become the habit of so 
many teachers. Moreover, teachers suppose it to be a " saving 
of time and labor" to have such books. This attitude of teach- 
ers reveals a misconception of the teaching-process which is in- 
defensible, except in novices. Where books containing an- 
swers have been adopted, the teacher should do the best he can 
to ignore them. 

The Assignment of Lessons in Written Arithmetic. 
The puj)il should know just how much ground he is expected 
to cover. Definite requirement is a stimulus in the prepara- 
tion of lessons. Such suggestions and preparatory drills as 
will put the pupil on the way to help himself, should be con- 
nected with the assignment of lessons. If the same lesson can 
be assigned to a number of pupils, the stimulus of definite as- 
signments will be very effective, and the necessary suggestions 
will do for the many as well as for one pupil. Generally it 
will be found best to assign the next arithmetic lessons at the 
close of recitations. The teacher will then know just what 
hints, directions, and helps, may be needed. In order to suc- 
ceed in these matters, the arithmetic teacher must evidently 
study every lesson every time he teaches it, even if that be a 
hundred times. It is not possible for any ordinary human 
being to remember the snags, switches, and pitfalls from year 
to year, so well as to be able to dispense with thinking the 
problem over every time. 

The Preparation of Lessons in Written Arithmetic. 
The lessons should never be so long as to make it impossible 
to work all the problems, or at least all the doubtful ones. 
In case of younger pupils, it is safest to require all problems 
to be worked and offered for inspection ; in the case of older 
pupils, successful recitation may be taken as sufficient evidence 
of preparation. As a moral precaution, younger pupils should 



272 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

work their lessons in school hours and under the teacher's eye; 
older pupils should be required to do some work out of school 
hours. In all cases, the teacher should strive to cultivate self- 
dependence in his workers. 

The Recitation in Written Arithmetic. The character- 
istics of a recitation in arithmetic can be most conveniently 
considered under the following heads : (1) The Objects of the 
Recitation ; (2) The Preparation of the Board ; (3) The As- 
signment of Problems ; (4) The Working of Problems ; (5) 
The Pupil's Explanation ; (6) Criticisms ; (7) The Teacher's 
Part in Problems; (8) Attention to the General Truths of 
Arithmetic ; and (9) The Importance of Reviews. 

The Objects of the Recitation. The objects of a recitation, 
whether it be in arithmetic or any other branch, are as follows : 
(1) To stimulate the pupil to study; (2) To exercise all the 
functions of the pupil's mind ; and (3) To develop the subject 
in question. In short, every lesson should count as so much 
discipline and as so much progress in the subject. 

The Preparation of the Board. At a given signal, the pupils 
should " prepare the board," i.e., they should carefully erase 
whatever interferes with the purpose of the recitation, and 
write their names at the head of the board. After these pre- 
liminaries, the pupils should face the teacher and wait for 
assignments. 

The Assignment of Problems. In case of younger pupils, the 
same problem should be assigned to the whole class by dicta- 
tion. The teacher should see to it that the pupils do not 
"■ copy" in working the problem. In case of older pupils, a 
different task should be assigned to every pupil. The ideal 
way of assigning problems is to write them on prepared slips 
of paper, together with the number of the problem and the 
page of the book from which it may be taken, and to dis- 
tribute the papers by lot. Tliis plan is, however, not always 
practicable. In such cases, the problems may be assigned by 



ARITHMETIC 273 

dictation, or by number and j)age. If no book is allowed at 
the board — and that is best when books contain answers, or 
when the class is small — the pupils should be taught to record 
the conditions of the dictated problem in some " short-hand" 
way. If books are used at the board — and this is allowable 
when the class is very large, when the books do not have the 
answers, or when the pupils are adults — the problems may be 
assigned by number and page. The number and page by 
which the problem was assigned should be written over the 
pupils' board for the convenience of the teacher and the class. 

The Working of the Problems. The pupils should be taught 
to do beautiful as well as correct and rapid work at the board. 
Precision and system are of great importance. Points, sym- 
bols, lines, figures, etc., should, accordingly, be strictly correct, 
and problems should be arranged as well as possible. No com- 
munications should be allowed between workers. A quiet, 
courteous, and natural dignity should be cultivated. 

The Pupil's Explanation of Problems. As soon as a pupil 
has worked his problem, he should quietly take a seat, or wait 
for new orders from the teacher. When all, or nearly all, the 
workers have done their work, the problems should be ex- 
plained by the pupils. These explanations should be clear, 
concise, and logical. The pupil explaining should stand erect 
at the board, facing the teacher and the class as much as pos- 
sible, holding the pointer in his right hand, and allowing the 
left hand to drop at his side. The habit of speaking earnestly, 
distinctly, and persuasively should be developed in these ex- 
planatory exercises. The explanations, as was pointed out, 
are of the highest importance to the pupil. The rest of the 
class should be required to listen very attentively. This re- 
quirement is a valuable stimulus, since it causes " comparison" 
and converts every pupil into an adjutant teacher. 

Criticisms. The pupil's work and explanation must often 
be supplemented and criticised. The whole class must be 

18 



274 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

ready for such additions and criticisms. This exercise is of 
the highest importance to the discipline and instruction of all. 

The Teacher's Part in Problems. It may be necessary to 
offer suggestions to workers at the board, and to give direc- 
tions to those who seem to be unable to proceed. The right 
time for such help must be determined by the circumstances. 
The teacher should not work problems for pupils, except as a 
last resort, and even then it may be better to work another 
problem that involves the same principles. Sometimes it is 
well to let pupils try for several days to do a problem, the 
teacher offering such hints as may seem in place. The teacher 
should supplement and criticise the pupil's explanation of 
problems, and add such information as may create interest in 
arithmetic. 

Attention to the General Truths of Arithmetic. The impres- 
sion seems to prevail that the great thing in arithmetic is " to 
work and explain problems." The whole truth is, that defi- 
nitions, rules, principles, and axioms must be taught in con- 
nection with problems. But these general truths of arithmetic 
should be developed by induction or derived by deduction, as 
the case may be, in accordance with the methods already de- 
scribed, nor should any " text" statements of such truths ever 
be committed unless they are understood. The pupil's own 
statement, the immediate evidence of his own thinking, is to 
be generally preferred. Much of this work is most conven- 
iently connected with the assignment of lessons and reviews. 

The Importance of Reviews in Arithmetic. There should, of 
course, be formal reviews once a week or once in two weeks, 
and monthly tests. Every truth ever learned, and every power 
of computation ever acquired, should thus become permanent 
possessions. In addition to these formal reviews and tests, 
every recitation should consist partly of reviews and tests. 
Such connections will not only stimulate thorough preparation 
and private review, but serve as introductions to advances. 



ARITHMETIC 275 

In these reviews no help should be offered except in extreme 
cases. The teacher needs excellent judgment in these, as in 
all cases. 

b. MENTAL ARITHMETIC. 

The special features of mental arithmetic are most con- 
veniently studied under the following heads : (1) The Nature 
of Mental Arithmetic ; (2) The Preparation of Lessons ; (3) 
The Recitation in Mental Arithmetic ; and (4) The Importance 
of Mental Arithmetic. 

The Nature of Mental Arithmetic. Mental arithmetic 
is so named, not because written arithmetic is only a physical 
process, but because in mental arithmetic the " number-opera- 
tions" are performed without the aid of " figures." The real 
difference between these two species of arithmetic is this, that 
mental arithmetic is eminently analytical and inductive, while 
written arithmetic lays more stress on economic abridgments 
and deductions. These distinctions between mental and writ- 
ten arithmetic may be understood by comparing the two modes 
of solving a problem. Take, for example, this problem : If 
f of a pound of butter costs 10 cents, what will f of a pound 
cost? 

The Solution in Mental Arithmetic. If f of a pound of but- 
ter costs 10 cents, 3- of a pound will cost |- of 10 cents, or 5 
cents, and f , or 1 pound, of butter will cost 5 times 5, or 25 
cents. If 1 pound of butter costs 25 cents, { of a pound will 
cost 1^ of 25 cents, or Q^ cents, and f of a pound will cost 3 
times 6^ cents, or 18f cents. The analytic-synthetic steps of 
the solution may be represented in the following drawing of 
physical steps : 



5 

^~i r 

1 

2 

|J i ^ 



276 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

lb. cts. lb. cts. 

The Solution in Written Arithmetic. If |- = 10, f = 25, and 

lb. cts. cts. 

3 = 18|; or, f : f = 10 : answer; therefore, ^^|^^" = \5 = 

cts. 

18f . Whether solved by fractions or proportion, the economic 

abridgments and the deductive reasoning are obvious. In 
the solution by mental arithmetic the analysis of the problem 
allows no abridgments, and is the first step in the induction 
of rules. 

The Preparation of Lessons in Mental Arithmetic. As 
far as possible problems should be written out before the reci- 
tation. At all events, every problem should be " thought out" 
by analysis. The teacher and the pupils are equally subject 
to this requirement. The lessons must, of course, be short 
enough to make such preparation possible. 

The Recitation in Mental Arithmetic. Various methods 
have been proposed and used. Among the best ones are the 
following : 

The Common Method. The teacher reads a problem, assigns 
it to some pupil, and requires him to rise, repeat, and solve it 
without the help of a book or figures. It is necessary to insist 
on precise and concise language, and correct pronunciation. 
The method is economic, and, in the hands of a strong teacher, 
will be effective. 

Tlie Chance Assignment Method. The number of the prob- 
lem and the page of the book from which it may have been 
taken are put on prepared slips of paper, and the pupils draw 
papers by lot. The teacher reads a problem, announces the 
number and page, and expects the pupil that drew the number 
to rise and then repeat and solve the problem as in the common 
method. This method is superior to the common method as 
an exercise in attention. 

The " Parts'^ Method. The teacher reads and assigns as in 
the common method ; but when the first pupil has repeated 



ARITHMETIC 277 

the problem he may assign it to another pupil, who, after 
partly solving it, may pass it to another, etc., until finally it 
has been fully solved. The method is effective with younger 
children as a means of holding their attention, and may be 
used for variety in connection with other methods. 

The Silent Method. The teacher reads a problem as in the 
common method, the whole class tries to solve it, and when 
time enough has been allowed, some one is requested to rise, 
repeat, and solve, as in the common method. This method is 
good for variety, and with younger pupils, but requires a great 
deal of time. 

Board Work in 3fental Arithmetic. In connection with any 
of the preceding methods, some pupils should be required to 
work questions on the board. These questions should be as- 
signed by means of slips of paper on which they have been 
copied beforehand. Such board-work is a good opportunity 
to introduce supplementary problems and reviews. Written 
solutions in mental arithmetic develop accuracy in thought 
and language. The language as well as the thought should 
be criticised. 

The Importance of Mental Arithmetic. The method 
known as "mental" arithmetic has the following merits: (1) 
It is a superior means of mental discipline, and (2) It is a 
very desirable equipment for life. 

The Discipline of Mental Arithmetic. (1) Inasmuch as men- 
tal arithmetic is analytic and inductive, it is a fine training in 
logic. (2) Since the problem must be repeated and solved 
without a book, attention and memory are brought into ener- 
getic exercise. (3) The analytic process of mental arithmetic 
requires precise and concise language, and thus adds one most 
desirable power to another. (4) The habit of analysis and 
induction, as developed in mental arithmetic, is the true com- 
plement of written arithmetic and the door to higher mathe- 
matics. 



278 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

Tlie Practical Value of Mental Arithmetic. In practical life 
there are many times when the powers developed in mental 
arithmetic are most serviceable. The man who is unable to 
solve questions of practical arithmetic without pencil and 
paper is often at a disadvantage. 

An Eloquent Plea for Mental Arithmetic. " No words can 
convey a full appreciation of the importance of mental arith- 
metic. Only those who experienced the transition from the 
old methods to the new can fully realize the supreme value 
of the study. Indeed, we believe that the method of mental 
arithmetic is the greatest improvement in modern education ; 
and the world owes a debt of gratitude to Warren Colburn, 
its author, which it can never pay. Though there has been a 
recent reaction in public sentiment against the subject, we be- 
lieve that it is merely a wave of opinion and that it cannot be 
permanent. Mental arithmetic is the great source of disci- 
pline to the power of thought in our public schools. When 
properly taught, it gives quickness of perception, keenness of 
insight, toughness of mental fibre, and an intellectual power 
and grasp that can be acquired by no other primary study. To 
omit, therefore, a thorough course in mental arithmetic in the 
common schools, is to deprive the pupils of one of the princi- 
pal sources of thought power." 

III. HIGHER ARITHMETIC. 

The purpose in hand forbids an extended discussion of 
higher arithmetic. A mere outline is all that our limits will 
allow, and the outline is respectfully sul)joined as a stimulus 
to teachers. 

The Ends in View in Higher Arithmetic. The ends in 
view in higher arithmetic are as follows : (1) To supplement 
the grammar school course ; (2) To study such remotest rela- 
tions of arithmetic as can be better understood after a course 
in algebra and geometry ; (3) To equip pupils with such 



ARITHMETIC 279 

special training in arithmetic as shall serve special needs of 
life ; and (4) To develop such historical, scientific, philo- 
sophic, and professional scholarship in arithmetic as may be 
deemed important. 

The Method of Instruction in Higher Arithmetic. The 
development method, as employed in intermediate arithmetic, 
is virtually the right method for higher arithmetic. The 
higher phases of the subject, the special purposes in view, and 
the "personal element" of the teacher, must determine the 
necessary adjustments. The pedagogics of arithmetic is a 
problem in psychology and economy, and must, of course, be 
studied from those special stand-points. 

The Subjects of Higher Arithmetic. The course of 
higher arithmetic belongs to the high school, normal school, 
business college, etc. 

High School Arithmetic. The subject of arithmetic should 
not be dropped in high schools. It should be retained as a 
means of higher culture and special equipment. (1) From 
the stand-point of culture, a regular text-book should be sup- 
plemented with "test" problems. A course of mensuration 
should be added after geometry, the special purpose being to 
investigate the origin of rules and to acquire the power to 
make original rules. (2) From the stand-point of equipment, 
the high school should offer a course of commercial arithmetic 
in connection with book-keeping. A thorough course in the 
" Metric System" is desirable. 

Normal School Arithmetic. The normal school should offer 
a course in arithmetic equivalent to that just mapped out for 
high schools. The special stand-point of normal schools re- 
quires such a course for two reasons : (1) As a preparation for 
the pedagogics of arithmetic ; and (2) As an equipment in 
teaching arithmetic. The history and philosophy of arithme- 
tic should be connected with the pedagogics of arithmetic. 
Discovery of principles and deduction of methods should be 



280 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

the great aim. Old methods should be subjected to criticism, 
and original methods derived. A course in duodecimals is 
desirable for teachers and specialists in arithmetic. 

IV. THE IMPORTANCE OF ARITHMETIC. 

The importance of arithmetic is most conveniently consid- 
ered under the following heads : (1) The Culture Value of 
Arithmetic; (2) The Instruction Value of Arithmetic; (3) 
The Practical Value of Arithmetic ; and (4) The Training of 
Teachers of Arithmetic. 

The Culture Value of Arithmetic. The detachment of 
quantity from quality at once distinguishes arithmetic from 
all other sciences. The measurement of quantities, and the 
expression of such measurements by means of " numbers," are 
the great concerns of arithmetic. The measurement of quan- 
tities makes analysis, synthesis, and comparison the necessary 
processes of arithmetic. The possibilities and applications of 
these processes must be ascertained by the development method 
of study. Thus we see that arithmetic exercises the mind in 
its most complex functions and within a sphere sui generis. 
The tendency of such exercise is to develop the power of at- 
tention in union witli the syllogistic processes. But, although 
the " intellect" and " will" are thus exercised somewhat unfeel- 
ingly, the " heart" learns to rejoice in " truths." There is one 
danger in the study of arithmetic. " The Committee of Fif- 
teen" refers to this danger as follows : " The study of quan- 
tity, if carried to excess, may warp the mind into a habit of 
neglecting quality in its observation and reflection. As there 
is no subsumption in the quantitative judgment, but only 
equality or inequality (A is equal to or greater or less than B), 
there is a tendency to atrophy in the faculty of concrete syllo- 
gistic reasoning on the part of the person devoted exclusively 
to mathematics." 

The Instruction Value of Arithmetic. The knowledge 



ARITHMETIC 281 

of " numbers" is virtually equivalent to the intellectual meas- 
urement of the universe ; it permits the imagination to ascend 
and descend to the utmost limits of space, to estimate the forces 
of nature, and to fathom the ends of eternity ; it, therefore, 
emancipates the mind from its physical environments and lifts 
it into the atmosphere of infinities. The lesson of immortal- 
ity, as Pythagoras saw, is forced upon the studious mind in 
arithmetic. 

The Practical Value of Arithmetic. " The Committee 
of Fifteen" has this to say about the practical value of arith- 
metic : " It is the first tool of thought that man invents in the 
work of emancipating himself from the thraldom to external 
forces. For by the command of numbers he learns to divide 
and conquer. He can proportion one force to another, and 
concentrate against an obstacle precisely what is needed to 
overcome it. Number also makes possible all the other sci- 
ences of nature which depend on exact measurement and exact 
record of phenomena as to the following items : order of suc- 
cession, date, duration, locality, environment, extent of sphere 
of influence, number of manifestations, number of cases of in- 
termittence. All these can be defined accurately only by 
means of number." 

The Training' of Teachers of Arithmetic. The respon- 
sibility of teachers of arithmetic must be measured by the im- 
portance of the study. If arithmetic is as important to pupils 
as just explained, it is evident that teachers of arithmetic need 
the best possible training. This training consists of two items : 
(1) Training in arithmetic itself. This training is needed in 
tlie art as well as in the science of teaching arithmetic. With- 
out such proficiency the teacher must be a " blind leader of 
the blind," (2) Training in the principles and methods of 
teaching arithmetic. Since this topic was the subject of the 
present chapter, it is hoped that the point in question may be 
evident without further study. 



282 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 
CHAPTER IX. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

The first requisite in ideal instruction is a definite concep- 
tion of the " subject" to be taught. In this chapter on geog- 
raphy we must therefore inquire into the nature of geography 
before we try to solve the problem of teaching geography. 

A. THE NATURE OF GEOGRAPHY. 

The purpose of the chapter limits inquiry into the nature 
of geography to four topics : (1 ) The " Subject" of Geography, 
(2) The Psychology of Geography, (3) The Relation of Geog- 
raphy to Other Branches, and (4) The History of Geography. 

The Subject of Geography. " Geography," as commonly 
defined, " is a description of the surface of the earth, and its 
inhabitants." The subject of geography, according to this 
definition, is (1) The earth's surface, and (2) The earth's in- 
habitants. The earth, however, is the subject of geography 
only in so far as it is the ^' home of man," and man only in so 
far as he is the earth's inhabitant. But the earth, as man's 
habitat, consists of land, water, atmosphere, plants, animals, 
minerals, and conditions of relation ; and man, as the earth's 
inhabitant, is subject to changes, makes changes in his habitat, 
and employs it as means to ends. These phenomena, accord- 
ingly, constitute the " subject" of geography. This definite 
conception of geography is completely developed in Guyot's 
treatise on " The Earth and Man." 

The Psychology of Geography. The " subject" of geog- 
raphy is capable not only of description, but also of explana- 
tion. Geography is, therefore, really a science. Strictly de- 
fined. Geography is the science of the earth as man's habitat and 



GEOGRAPHY 283 

of man as the earth's inhabitant. As a science, geography 
must first observe and then explain its phenomena. 

Observation in Geography. Possibly there is no other science 
in which observers are so likely to trespass upon the domain 
of related sciences. The observer in geography should there- 
fore keep in mind this absolute requirement, to observe the 
earth only as man's habitat, and man only as the earth's in- 
habitant. Within these bounds, however, the student must 
observe (with senses and judgment) every nook and corner of 
space and time, and record his observations. When original 
contribution to the science of geography is the end in view, 
perceptive observation is imperative ; but, in the case of pupils 
of geography, perceptive observation must for obvious reasons 
be supplemented by conceptive observation. 

Explanation in Geography. Just as cumulation is the first 
step toward construction in building a house, so observation 
is only the first stage in science. The cumulation of facts must 
be supplemented by explanation. In other words, the facts of 
geography must be referred to causes, laws, and classes. The 
process of geographical explanation begins with an inductive 
inquiry into the relations in question, and ends in deductive 
classification of phenomena. (See Principles of Knowledge.) 
Whether original contribution to the science of geography, or 
acquaintance with the constructed science, be the end in view, 
the explanatory process is essentially the same. The only dif- 
ference between the geographer and the student of geography 
is this, that presumably the former is able to supervise his 
course, while the latter is a protege of supervision. 

Species of Geography. The subject of geography, as we 
have seen, lies partly in space and partly in time. The phe- 
nomena in question are therefore (1) Physical Phenomena, 
and (2) Historical Phenomena. 

Physical Geography. The description and explanation of 
the physical phenomena of geography constitute Physical 



284 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

Geography, or Physiography. Nature in the form of land, 
water, air, plants, animals, minerals, and man, as well as the 
planetary relation of the earth, is the subject of physical geog- 
raphy. Thus it follows that special problems of geology, 
meteorology, botany, zoology, anthropology, and astronomy, 
when viewed from the stand-point of geography, are also 
special problems of physical geography. Astronomical, or 
Mathematical geography, is often treated as if it were a third 
species of geography coordinate with physical and political 
geography. 

Political Geography. The description and explanation of 
the changes which man as the earth's inhabitant makes in his 
habitat, and of the uses to which he puts his habitat, constitute 
Historical, or Political Geography. Accordingly, political 
geography treats of man's divisions of territory, his modes of 
life, civilization, and activity, and the character of the govern- 
ments which he establishes. Thus we see that certain prob- 
lems of history, when viewed from the stand-point of geog- 
raphy, become special problems of political geography. 

The Relation of Geography to Other Branches. Inas- 
much as the earth is the subject of geography only in so far 
as it is man's habitat, and man only in so far as he is the 
earth's inhabitant, the relation of geography to other branches 
whose subject in some aspect or other is also the earth or man 
must be obvious. The earth, for example, is the subject of 
chemistry, but only in so far as it consists of "elements in 
composition." So, too, the earth is the subject of geology, 
botany, zoology, mineralogy, etc., but only in so far as it can 
be viewed from the special stand-points of these sciences. In 
the same way, man is the subject of various sciences, such as 
physiology, psychology, etc., but only in so far as he can be 
viewed from the special stand-points of these sciences. Thus 
it follows that while geography and many other sciences appar- 
ently have the same subject, they really have only certain as- 



GEOGRAPHY 285 

pects of this subject for their special domains. Two inferences 
are necessary : (1) Geography is an encyclopaedic introduction 
to the various sciences whose subjects are aspects of the earth 
and man ; and (2) A knowledge of the sciences related to geog- 
raphy is requisite to a complete mastery of geography. (See 
the Tenth Principle of Knowledge.) 

The History of Geography. For the first records of 
geography, we must look to the " nest places" of civilization, 
i.e., to the fertile valleys and peninsulas about the shores of the 
Mediterranean Sea and the Persian Gulf. " Here the sailor, 
the traveller, the soldier, brought together their accounts of 
foreign lands, people, winds, ocean currents, and apparent 
motions of the heavenly bodies." The ancient Egyptians and 
Phoenicians knew only the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. 
The Greek Homer (about 900 B.C.) knew Asia Minor, Phoe- 
nicia, and Egypt, but apparently was ignorant of Mesopo- 
tamia. " Herodotus (450 B.C.) had travelled through Asia 
Minor, Phoenicia, Lower Egypt, and Mesopotamia, which, 
with his own country, he has accurately described ; but he 
knew very little of the discoveries to the westward, and has 
not even mentioned Rome." Alexander's marches laid open 
the way to India. "Eratosthenes (276-194 B.C.) began at 
Alexandria to explore the heavens for the key to mathemati- 
cal geography. He also studied the relation of irregular coast- 
lines to continental areas, together with the effects of great 
natural features upon climate, and used parallels and meri- 
dians in his maps to locate important places." The Punic 
Wars and the campaigns of Julius Csesar made known many 
countries. The greatest geographer of ancient times was Clau- 
dius Ptolemy (about 150 a.d.). If the claims be correct, New- 
foundland, Nova Scotia, and Martha's Vineyard were dis- 
covered about 1000 A.D. Then came Columbus, Vasco de 
Gama, and Magellan, completely overturning the Ptolemaic 
system, and forcing the scientific world to adopt the theory 



286 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

of a solar system. "About 1556 a Flemish mathematician 
named Mercator constructed the first map of the whole world 
ii])on the i)rojection which bears his name." Other projec- 
tions, known as cmiic, jmlyconic, and globular, came later. 
Humboldt "was the first to teach f^cogra])hers to indicate 
climate by means of isotherms ; to divide the world into nat- 
ural rej^ions, basing the divisions U])on natural features, for 
showing the distribution of life ; to grouj) the j)lants into a 
few great families, and refer them to climatic conditions." 
The groat Ritter made geography " The Science of the PCarth 
in Relation to Nature and the History of Man." He studied 
" the trends of the great mountain systems, the comparative 
areas of highlands and lowlands, tlie proportions of continen- 
tal surliices to coast-lines, the dispositiim of" land and water 
areas, togetlier with their influence upon climate, the distribu- 
tion of life, and the intellectual development of ihc races." 
Arnold Guyot, a disciple of Ritter, has done much for geog- 
raphy in America. The earliest American text-books on geog- 
raphy wer(> little more than catalogues of })laces, etc. By and 
by description and explanation were added. Among the most 
poj)ular geographies of our times arc Warren's, ]>ut]er's, Mit- 
chell's, Appleton's, Fryc's, and Redway and Hinman's. For 
a complete view of the history of geography, the reader is re- 
ferred to l^rofessor Frye's little book " The Child and Nature," 
from which most of the foregoing details are quoted. 

B. INSTRUCTION IN GEOGRAPHY. 

Three great questions constitute the j)roblem of teaching 
geography: (1) In wliat order and to what extent are the 
subjects of geography to be taught? (2) What method of in- 
struction is a])])ro])riate to each course ? and (8) How impor- 
tant is the study of geography to educiation ? These (piestions 
will be discussed under the following heads: (1) The Neces- 
sary Courses in Geography, (2) The Elementary Course in Ge- 



GEOGRAPHY 287 

ography, (3) The Intermediate Course in Geography, (4) The 
Higher Course in Geography, and (5) The Importance of Geog- 
raphy. 

I. THE NECESSARY COURSES IN GEOGRAPHY. 

The subjects of geography should be taken up in the order 
of their dependence and complexity. (See Principles of 
Knowledge.) Progress from subject to subject, and phase to 
phase, should be adapted to the stages of the pupil's possibil- 
ity. (See the First Principle of Instruction.) 

Complexity in the Evolution of Geography. The order 
of dependence (see Principles of Knowledge) in the evolution 
of any subject is absolute. It must accordingly be the task of 
authors and teachers to discover and follow this order in their 
books and instruction. It also obviously devolves on authors 
and teachers to ascertain the stages of complexity in the evolu- 
tion of a subject, and to proceed from the simple to the com- 
plex in teaching. (See the Third and Fourth Principles of 
Knowledge.) In geography, as in all studies, each subject 
has three distinct stages of complexity, (1) The stage of imme- 
diate relations, (2) The stage of remoter relations, and (.3) The 
stage of remotest relations. 

The Stage of Immediate Relations. The concrete phase of a 
subject is readily comprehended when the parts and qualities 
of that which is in question are few and their dependence ob- 
vious to the senses. The concrete phase of " slope and drain- 
age," for example, is readily understood even by a child when 
the slope and drainage have no obscure parts. In such cases 
even the law can be taught to a child. 

The Stage of Remoter Relations. Abstract phases of a sub- 
ject are more difficult to comprehend, especially if the qualities 
of that w^hich is in question are numerous and the relations can 
be illustrated only imperfectly. This is the case in the study 
of winds, tides, currents, coast-lines, commerce, government, 
etc. Even when we resort to illustrations, such as can be 



288 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

given by means of relief globes, charts, etc., these subjects are 
too complex for children. 

The Stage of Remotest Relations. Abstract relations of a 
subject are very difficult to understand when the parts and 
qualities of that which is in question enter into complex com- 
position. It is a most difficult problem, for example, to study 
" the trends of the great mountain systems, the comparative 
areas of highlands and lowlands, the proportions of continen- 
tal surfaces to coast-lines, the disposition of land and water 
areas, together ivith their influence upon climate, the distribu- 
tion of life, and the intellectual development of the races." 

The Stages of the Pupil's Possibility. The pupil's pos- 
sibility is approximately measured by his capacity and oppor- 
tunity (see the Fourth General Principle of Education), but 
there are general stages of possibility for every pupil, which 
determine what phase of a subject he should study. (See the 
Second, Third, and Eighth Principles of Instruction.) Stated 
in logical order,* these stages are those of (1) Dependence, (2) 
Transition, and (3) Independence. 

The Stage of the Pupil's Dependence. So long as the pupil 
needs supervision in the formation of his concepts and conclu- 
sions, he is a proteg6 in geography, and must be assisted by 
concrete guidance, as in object lessons. 

Tlie Stage of the Pupil's Transition. As soon as the pupil 
needs supervision only in case of complexities, or for reasons 
of economy, he is becoming independent, and mnst be required 
to shift for himself. Books, maps, etc., must now become reg- 
ular means of supplementing his observations and reflections. 

The Stage of the PupiVs Independence. "When stimulus, 
rather than supervision, is all that the pupil needs, he must 
be thrown almost altogether upon his own resources. Advanced 
texts, atlases, cyclopaedias, etc., must now become regular 
means, and the recitation is hardly more than a spur to 
original investigation. 



GEOGRAPHY 289 

The Necessary Courses in Geography. Thus it follows 
that the necessary course in geography, as in other branches, 
are three : (1) The concrete coarse, in which the relations of 
the subjects are obyious, and much supenTsion necessary'. 
This course is termed the Elementary course. (2) The course 
in which the relations of the subjects are less oboous, and 
superyision is less direct This course is termed the Interme- 
diate course. (3) The course in which the relations are com- 
plex and attract, and the pupil has supei'vrisory power. This 
course Ls termed the Higher course. 

n. THE ELEMEN'TAEY COUESE IN GEOGRAPHY. 

The topics which at this point d&serye attention are the fol- 
lowing : (1) The ends in yiew, (2) The lesson-method, (3) The 
subjects of elementary geography, and (4) Sample lessons. 

The Ends in View in Elementary Geo^aphy. There 
are four ends in yiew in ideal instruction, (1) The deyelop- 
ment of concepts, (2) The discoyeiy of facts, (3) Inductions, 
and (4) Deductions. 

Thue Development of Concepts. Inasmuch as the subject of 
geography lies partly in space and partly in time, the first task 
in teaching geography is to deyelop in the pupil's mind such 
concepts of extension a? position, direction, distance, hour, 
montii, year, etc., and their signs (representation) on maps^ 
globes, in books, etc. The neglect to perform this task always 
cripples the child's progress. 

The Discovery of Facts. The ultimate object of science is 
the discoyery of general truths, or principles ; but this disooy- 
ery is either unlikely or impossible when particular truths, or 
facts, haye not been discoyered by the learner. (See the Fifth 
Principle of Knowledge.) When, therefore, such general 
truths a? definitions and latcs are to be thought by the pupil, 
he should first think concrete cases. 

Inductions. As soon as the pupil has discovered &cts, he 

19 



290 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

is ready to think principles. Indeed, it must be obvious to 
any one who will think about it, that pupils are not only 
ready, but should be required to think the general (not necessa- 
rily the universal) as soon as they have thought the particular. 
When, for example, the pupil has discovered that a mountain 
is very high land, he should be led to think the definition, or 
general truth, of mountains ; or, when he has discovered that 
a stream of water flows down hill, he should be led to think 
that all streams tend to flow down hill. The teacher that 
neglects such inductions really neglects to teach. 

Deductions. Induction makes it possible for the mind to 
classify its acquisitions, and to know more individuals of a 
genus than one has ever studied. Such insight into genera 
saves labor and confusion in subsequent thought, inasmuch as 
new individuals can be readily classified by means of obvious 
specific properties. When, for example, the pupil has learned 
the principle that all the rivers of some particular slope flow 
into one bed, he needs to know only one thing about any new 
river, namely, that it belongs to that slope, to classify it cor- 
rectly in other respects also. This ability to classify by de- 
duction is the high prerogative of humanity, and the ultimate 
object of ideal instruction. When this power has been devel- 
oped, science becomes art, and the learner, provided the power 
has also become habit, is "of age." (See Third General 
Principle of Education.) 

The Lesson-Method of Elementary Geography. The 
tasks of elementary geography (see the preceding paragraph) 
can be accomplished only by requiring learners to study sub- 
jects with all the possible functions of the mind in logical suc- 
cession. (See the Tenth Principle of Instruction.) This re- 
quirement is virtually fulfilled in what are conveniently termed 
Inductive-deductive Lessons. The conspicuous steps of an in- 
ductive-deductive lesson are as follows : (1) Perception, (2) 
Conception, (3) Representation, and (4) Explanation. 



GEOGRAPHY 291 

Perceptioyi. Inasmuch as the " subject" of geography lies 
partly in space and partly in time, the concrete quality of 
which in both cases is extension, perception is the natural basis 
of direct comparisons in geography. Apart from actual per- 
ception, these comparisons are likely to resemble " beating the 
air." 

Conception. In the course of several direct comparisons, 
the mind, by " selecting agreements" (abstraction) and think- 
ing them into unity (generalization), arrives at concepts, or 
general ideas. This complex process in its entirety is termed 
Conception. It implies memory as the means in holding fast 
experiences and names ; and, in the form of imagination, it 
enlarges the mental horizon in geography, thus completing the 
mind's desired survey of space. The term definition denotes 
two things in this connection, (1) The process of conception 
itself, and (2) The description of a concept in words. These 
two things should be combined as much as possible in the 
order just given. 

Representation. Since the " subject" of geography lies ex- 
tended in space and time, these extensions can be physically 
represented. The most realistic representation of geographical 
knowledge are sand-moulding and clay-modelling, or relief 
globes ; the most convenient, although the most abstract form 
of representation, are drawings termed Maps and Globes. The 
immediate purpose of representation in geography is (1) To 
stimulate observation, and (2) To supervise thought. The 
permanent function of maps and globes is (1) To record geo- 
graphical observations, and (2) To serve, though imperfectly, 
as a substitute for observation of the " subject" of geography. 
At first only the simplest exercises should be required of 
pupils. These exercises should, however, be introduced as 
soon as sound sense dictates, and difficulties should be mastered 
as fast as judgment and constructive skill can be developed. 
Formal map-drills should follow map-making. 



292 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

Explanation. The pupil should be required to think causes, 
laws, and classes, so far as he is able, in connection with per- 
ception, conception, and representation in geography. Causes, 
laws, and classes can often be understood by very young 
pupils, if the teacher's illustrations and questions are skilful. 
Nevertheless, the pupil should not be pushed beyond his " in- 
terest" in these matters. Indeed, description (perception, con- 
ception, representation) should predominate very much over 
explanation in elementary geography. Deductive exercises 
should be added in order to bring geographical knowledge 
into real life. 

a. THE SUBJECTS OF ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. 

Elementary geography may begin the last part of the second 
or the first part of the third school year, and should cover 
about three years. The progress from subject to subject in 
elementary geography should at first be synthetic (starting at 
home), and, in due time, it should be analytic. (See the Sec- 
ond and Fifth Principles of Instruction.) The following out- 
line suggests the work to be done, and the order in which to 
develop the subjects. The pupil should be required to study 
a simple book, such as Frye's " Primary Geography," the 
third year. 

Position. Develop the concepts above, below, before, behind, 
right, left, etc. Place objects into the relations denoted by 
these terms, require the pupils to place objects into these rela- 
tions, and have them locate objects in such relations. 

Direction. Develop the concepts East, West, North, South, 
etc. Require some pupil standing in front of the class to point 
out and face the East, West, etc. Have the pupils locate ob- 
jects, places, etc., in the East, West, etc. Place the pupils at 
various points in the room, and lead them to see the directions 
(1) from some central point (absolute direction), and (2) from 
each other (relative direction). 



GEOGRAPHY 293 

Distance. Develop all the concepts of linear measure, such 
as length, breadth, height, depth, etc. Lead them to know 
inches, foot, yard, rod, etc., by actual measurements. Require 
them to divide lines, strings, etc., into halves, thirds, etc. 
Have them estimate the length, breadth, height, etc., of the 
floor, blackboard, cellars, windows, etc., and then test the 
estimates by actual measurements. 

Representation. Having acquired the ideas of position, 
direction, and distance, the pupil is ready to make maps of the 
table, floor, yard, field, etc., denoting positions, directions, and 
distances, by means of dots, lines, colors, etc. (See the First 
and Third Principles of Knowledge.) Lead the pupils to see 
that a line an inch long, for example, may represent an edge 
a foot, yard, or rod long. Begin these lessons by showing the 
children how to map the table-top on the black-board. Re- 
quire them to map the table, floor, etc., on slates, board, etc., 
using the adopted "scale of measurement." 

Surface. (1) Lead the pupils to distinguish even, uneven, 
level, and sloping surfaces. Require them to find such surfaces 
in the vicinity of the school-house and their homes. (2) Lead 
the pupils to distinguish highlands and lowlands. Develop in 
succession the concepts of the various species of high laud, 
such as hill, mountain, range, peak, etc. Require the children 
to describe a hill, mountain, etc., introducing such terms as 
base, slope, summit, etc. In the same way develop the con- 
cepts of the various species of low land, such as meadow, val- 
ley, prairie, etc. If possible, imitate these forms in sand and 
clay. Use illustrative pictures. Require descriptions in which 
memory, imagination, and judgment are necessary. Identify 
these forms on maps, globes, etc. Lead the pupil to reflect on 
these forms. 

Water. Lead the pupil to distinguish streams from still 
bodies of water. Develop in succession tlie concepts of the 
various species of streams, such as creeh, brooh, river, etc., to- 



294 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

gether with their sources, banks, bed, current, etc. In the 
same way develop in succession such concepts as pond (together 
with bay, strait), lake, sea, ocean, etc., together with their shores, 
bed, inlets, outlets, uses, etc. When possible, imitate these 
forms in clay and by means of the " geographical box." Use 
illustrative pictures. Give and require descriptions in which 
memory, imagination, and judgment are necessary. Identify 
all these forms on globes, maps, etc. Lead the pupil to reflect 
on such questions as (1) What kind of fishes live in the creek 
which you crossed this morning? (2) What causes the cur- 
rent in a stream ? (3) Why do some streams flow faster than 
others ? (4) Why is it hard for a fish to swim " up stream" ? 
(5) What are rapids ? (6) Why is sea-water unfit for drink- 
ing? 

Land and Water. Teach other lessons on land and water 
in the way just indicated. 

Climate. Develop the concepts of temperature, moisture, 
wind, etc. Lead them to distinguish climates as warm, cold, 
moderate, moist, dry, etc., and acquaint them with examples. 
Teach them to reflect on the causes of various climates, and 
lead them to see how climate affects health, plants, animals, 
products, habits, etc. 

Soil. Require the pupils to handle sand, shale, clay, loam, 
etc. Help them to sow seeds and plant trees into the various 
kinds of soil, and thus lead them to distinguish soil as fertile, 
barren, etc. Require them to locate the various soils, and to 
reflect on their causes, such as slope, etc. Teach them some 
efi^ects of soils on plants, trees, etc. 

Productions. Having developed the conditioning concepts 
of climate and soil, lead the children to discover the simpler 
concepts, facts, and relations of the various productions, such 
as flowers, grasses, grains, vegetables, etc. The following de- 
tails will suggest the work that can be done, and serve as a 
rough outline to be filled up as the teacher sees possible and 



GEOGRAPHY 295 

appropriate. (1) Require the pupils to name, distinguish, and 
locate the common grasses, grains, vegetables, fruits, trees, 
etc., and to study their habits, peculiarities, and uses. Tell 
them about the great prairies of the West, the rice-fields of 
the South, the potato of Ireland, the coffee of Brazil, the 
oranges of Florida, the trees of California, etc. (2) Require 
the pupils to name, distinguish, describe, and locate the com- 
mon species of insects, birds, fishes, reptiles, and other ani- 
mals. Familiarize them with the characteristic habits and 
uses of these animals. Give lessons on bees, spiders, butter- 
flies, fireflies, grasshoppers, potato bugs, plant lice, birds' nests, 
migration of birds, food of birds, habits of fowls, fishes, frogs, 
snakes, monkeys, etc. Tell the children about interesting 
animals of other lands. 

People. Familiarize the pupils with the industries of 
their community and neighboring localities. Require them 
to name these industries, the workers, their characteristic tools, 
products, etc. Lead the children to observe the buildings, 
dress, and manners of people, and require descriptions in 
which memory, imagination, judgment, etc., are necessary. 

Races. Find opportunities to teach the races of man, de- 
scribing them, studying their characteristics. Give lessons on 
the Indians, Negroes, Esquimaux, etc. 

At this time, say the beginning of the third year, the pupil 
should be required to study a simple book, and greater stress 
should be laid on globes and maps, and the preceding lessons 
should be reviewed in connection with the following new sub- 
jects. 

The Form of the Earth. Calling the pupil's attention to 
the ap'parent form of the earth (see the Second Principle of 
Instruction), lead him to think of it as round like a ball or an 
orange, etc. Develop such proofs as (1) People have travelled 
around the earth, (2) The horizon line is a circle, (8) The top 



296 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

of an incoming ship is first seen, (4) Other proofs. (See Red- 
way's " Manual of Geography.") Require pupils to think of 
such questions as the following : (1) Why do the ships that 
sail on the under side of the earth not fall off? (2) How does 
the inside of the earth look ? 

Distribution of Land and Water. Using relief globes, 
other globes, and raaps, lead the children to observe (1) The 
surface location of land and water, (2) The contour of the 
continents, (3) The primary and secondary continental reliefs, 
(4) The drainage^ (5) The relative proportion of land and 
water. 

Motions of the Earth. (1) Develop the concepts of time, 
such as day, hour, minute, week, month, year, as in the exer- 
cises of arithmetic. Lead the children to see the use of 
watches and clocks. Tell them about sun-dials, etc. (2) By 
means of a candle and globe, or black ball with a knitting 
needle as the axis, teach the 7'otation of the earth on its axis, 
and its effect, i.e., day and night. In the same way, teach the 
phenomena of the moon, and the lunar month. (3) With the 
same means, taking care to incline the axis properly, teach the 
revolution of the earth around the sun, the orbit of the earth, 
the effect of the earth's revolution and the inclination of its 
axis, i.e., the seasons, polar days and nights, the location and 
names of the principal circles, the zones, together with their 
peculiarities of climate, products, people, etc. (4) After the 
above lessons, and somewhat in connection with them, teach 
the equator, latitude, longitude, parallels, meridians, degrees 
of longitude, etc. Require the pupils to find the latitude 
and longitude of certain places, to locate places whose lati- 
tude and longitude are given, to reckon out differences of 
time, etc. 

Continents. Give lessons in the order of the book used, 
on continents, studying such subjects as position, contour, re- 
lief, drainage, climate, productions, etc. 



GEOGRAPHY 297 

Countries and Divisions. After such a general view of 
the continents, give lessons on the various countries, states, 
etc., studying position, contour, relief, drainage, soil, climate, 
products, people, political divisions, etc. 

Illustrative Lessons. In the elementary tasks of the first 
two years, the pupils are not supposed to " prepare lessons," 
as in later years. They should, however, be directed to make 
such observations as may serve the purposes in hand. They 
may also be invited to gather such objects, plants, etc., as can 
be secured by them. This holds true especially in " Nature" 
studies and the " Industries." As a rule it will devolve on 
the teacher himself to gather the materials for these elementary 
lessons. (See the Third and Fourth General Principles of Ed- 
ucation.) Some of these lessons, as the teacher can judge for 
himself, ought to be given " out of school hours" and " out of 
sight of school-houses." The following sample lessons are 
subjoined as suggestions, and are designed to illustrate the 
inductive-deductive lesson method to which reference has 
been made. These illustrations, however, are not meant to 
be " grooves" for teachers, but only as " sign-posts" to point 
out the way. The same lesson-method, supplemented, as 
already indicated, by the study of a simple book, is to be con- 
tinued the third year. 

A Lesson on Position. Teachei' (holding a book). Where 
is the book, Robert? Robert. It is above your head. T. 
Where is it now, Alice? Aliee. It is under your arm. T. 
Where is it now, Peter? Peter. It is in my left hand. T. 
And now ? P. In Mary's right hand. T. Boys, let your left 
hand hang down. T. You may all put your right hand upon 
your head ; under your left hand ; over it. T. Who sits to 
your right, James ? James. Mary Jones. T. You may all 
step forward ; backward ; to your right ; to your left. 

A Lesson on Direction. Teacher. Mary, please staud in 



298 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

front of the class. Point to the place where the sun rises. 
Turn your face in that divcclion. The place where the sun 
rises is called the East. AVhere does the sun rise, Mary ? Mary. 
The sun rises in the East. T. The class may face the East. 
T. Point to where the sun sets, Mary. That place is called 
the West. Where does the sun set, James ? James. In the 
West. T. Now, Mary, point to the East with your right 
hand and to the W^est with your left hand. If you should 
now walk forward, you would walk toward the North. T. 
John, please point to the North. T. If Mary should walk 
backward, she would walk toNvard the South. T. Ellen, 
please face the South. T. The class may rise. Face the 
East; the West; the North; the South. T. At which wall 
do I point, Jacob ? Jacob. At the North wall. At the East 
wall. T. Mabel, please walk West, East, North, South. T. 
James, stand against the North wall half way Irom each end. 
Ellen, stant] against the South wall, etc. Peter, stand against 
the East wall, etc. Mabel, stand against the West wall, etc. 
T. John, what is the direction from James to Ellen ; from 
l^^lleu to James ; from Peter to James ; from Mabel to Peter, 
etc. 

A Lesson on Map-Making. Teacher. Over what do I 
move my hand, James? James. Over the table. T. Please 
run your finger along the North edge of the table-top. T. I 
will now draw a line on the black-board for the North edge 
of tlie table-top. What have I done, James? 2\ Show the 
class the East edge of the table-top, John. T. What does the 
line that I have just drawn represent, Mary ? Mary. It rep- 
resents the East edge. T. This line? P. The West edge. 
T. This line? P. The South edge. T. (placing an inkstand 
on the table-top). Where is the inkstand, Thomas? Thomas. 
It is near the East edge of the table. T. How can this be 
represented on the board, Mabel? Mabel. By means of a 
picture. T. Yes, Mabel, or by means of a mark like this 



GEOGRAPHY 299 

(making a dot or cross). T. Miriam, take this foot-rule, and 
find out how long this desk is. Miriam. It is four feet long, 
T. I will draw a line to re])resent it (drawing a line one foot 
long). Please measure this line. Miriam. It is one foot long. 
1\ Please measure the width of this desk, Allen. Allen. It 
is two feet wide. T. How long shall I draw a line to repre- 
sent the width of the desk, Thomas ? Thomas. 1 can't tell. 
T. Who can tell ? John. You drew a line one foot long for 
the four feet ; therefore, I think the line should be half as long 
for two feet. T. That is a good answer. Thomas, please 
draw the line for me. Now complete the picture, and make 
marks to show where the pencil and the book are lying. 
Children, these drawings which we have made are called 
maps. Mollie, what is a map ? Tell what you think a map 
is, James. When you take your seats, try to make a map 
of your desk-top on your slate. To-morrow you may measure 
the floor and draw it. 

A Lesson on Land Forms. Teacher (moving the edge of 
the ruler across the table-toj)). Is this surface even or uneven, 
Morris ? Moriis. It is even. T. (pointing to the folds of a 
coat). What can you say about this surface, Ruth ? Ruth. It 
is not even. T. Yes, or uneven. T. Is the floor even or un- 
even ? Class. It is even. T. The school-yard ? Martha. It 
is not as even as the floor. Thomas. I watched the cows in 
a very uneven field last Summer. T. Was the field hilly, 
Thomas? Thomas. Yes, sir. T. What do you mean? 
Thomas. Some places in the field were higher than the others. 
T. Such high places, Thomas, are called hills. Emma, what 
is a hill. Emma. I think a hill is high land. T. What do 
you think, Peter? T. Do you see that high hill over toward 
the North ? Class. Yes, sir. Mary. I see a very, very high 
hill way off*. It is covered with trees. Papa took us up that 
high hill last summer to pick berries. There were big stones 
there too. I think James called them rocks. And I saw a 



300 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

rabbit run ! T. Well done, Mary. Such very high hills are 
called mountains. T. James, what is a mountain? James. 
A mountain is a very high hill. T. Yes, or a high elevation 
of land (moving his hand to show). T. When you went down 
to the creek yesterday, did you find the creek on a hill, John ? 
John. No, sir ; but I saw a hill to my right and another to 
ray left. T. What shall we call a low land between two hills 
or mountains, Florence ? Florence. I think mamma calls it a 
valley. T. That is the right name. What then is a valley ? 
Florence. A valley is the low land between hills or mountains. 
T. Who can describe some valley that you have seen ? Frank. 
I think I can, Mr. Porter. T. Try it, Frank. T. Who can 
tell what use can be made of valleys? T. To-morrow we 
will make little hills and valleys with sand. Perhaps you 
will also be ready to make a map of some valley that you 
have seen. 

A Lesson on Soil. Having collected specimens of soil, 
the teacher requires the pupils to handle and observe the speci- 
mens. T. Please tell us something about this sand, Flor- 
ence ? Florence. This sand is like sugar ; it is not quite as 
white. These little pieces (the teacher says "grains") have 
little corners tliat hurt when they get into your shoe. T. 
Herbert, this earth that I have in my hand is called clay. 
Please tell us something about it. Have you ever tried to 
make " mud-pies" ? T. Katie, press this lump of clay into 
the shape of a ball. Thomas, press this lump into the shape 
of a little tea-cup. T. Why does your mother not plant flowers 
in sand or clay ? Tillie. I know ; they wouki not grow. T. 
That is right ; sand and clay are not good soil, that is, earth, 
in which to sow seeds, etc. Good soil is called fertile soil, and 
poor soil is called barren soil. Nellie, where does your mother 
plant peas ? Nellie. She plants them in the garden. T. Why ? 
Nellie. I think it must be because the garden earth is good — 
I mean, fertile — soil. T. Children, look at this seed. I will 



GEOGRAPHY 301 

sow some of it in this box and some in this one. Now, please 
observe every day what will happen, write down whatever you 
see, and then I will ask you to tell me all that you can learn 
about these things. 

A Lesson on Plants. Teacher. Please examine these plants 
(handing specimens to the members of the class). Who knows 
the name of his plant ? Frank. Mine is a potato plant. Emma. 
Mine is a turnip. T. Who knows the name of Mary's plant ? 
(There is no reply.) It is a parsnip. I will write the name. 
How can you tell these plants apart from each other, George ? 
(The answers are to be supplied, and should include form, 
color, size, weight, etc.) T. Where do these plants grow? 
T. For what are they good ? T. Tell what you know about 
potatoes, Frank. T. Tell what you, etc., know. T. How 
does the farmer take potatoes to market? T. How does 
mother prepare turnips for the table, Jane? T: Which do 
you like better, Morris ? Why ? T. When do farmers plant 
potatoes? How? Why? 

A Lesson on the Form of the Earth. Teacher (standing 
with the class on the school grounds). Does the earth as far 
around as you can see (giving directions) look as flat as a floor ? 
(The answers are to be supplied by the student-teacher.) T. 
Does it look like this (running his finger around the edge of a 
nickel) ? T. (holding up a ball or an orange). The earth 
may seem to you to be somewhat flat and round like this 
nickel, but it really is round, almost like this ball. If the 
earth is round like this ball, what can I do if 1 start here 
(pointing to some marked spot)? Minnie. You can go all 
around the ball and come back to the place where you started. 
T. That is just what has been done (telling and illustrating 
fully). T. To-morrow we will study some other proofs that 
the earth is round. You may now go to your seats and write 
what we have learned about the shape of the earth. I will ask 
you to read your stories when we recite to-morrow. 



302 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

A Lesson on the Seasons. Teacher. In what time of the 
year do the clierry-trees blossom, Jennie ? Jennie. In Spring. 
(This answer is probable.) T. When do the farmers make 
hay, Ralph ? Ralph. In Summer. (Develop the concepts of 
Autumn and Winter by similar questions, and elicit descrip- 
tions.) T. These four times of the year are called seasons. 
How many seasons has a year, class? Class. Four seasons. 
T. Name them, Howard. T. What is meant by the name 
season, Sallie? Sallie. The different times of the year are 
called seasons. T. How do the four seasons of the year dif- 
fer from each other, Mabel ? T. What causes day and night, 
Howard? (A lesson on day and night is presupposed.) 
Howard. The earth revolves on its axis, and the side toward 
the sun is day, but the side away from it is called night. T. 
The seasons are caused somewhat in the same way. Let me 
show you (carrying a globe around the light of a candle, taking 
care to incline the axis properly, etc.). This is the Summer 
side (stopping at the right point). Tell me what you see, 
Mabel. Ifabel. I see that the light falls right against this 
spot (pointing it out). It is Pennsylvania. T. What, then, 
is the season in Pennsylvania when the sun shines upon 
it that way? Ralph. It is Summer. (Develop the other 
seasons in the same way, asking questions to bring out the 
points. Do not introduce too many difficulties at once. Go 
slowly.) 

Lessons on the other topics indicated in the catalogue of 
subjects should be given in the same way. It should be re- 
membered that the preceding sample lessons are only sug- 
gestions. The individual teacher must ever strive to be 
himself as much as possible, and to adapt himself to his con- 
crete situations. The lessons on mathematical or astronom- 
ical geography should not be taken up too soon, and wlien 
taken up they should be carefully planned beforehand by the 
teacher. 



GEOGRAPHY 303 

III. THE INTERMEDIATE COURSE IN GEOGRAPHY. 

The topics that deserve attention in this section are as fol- 
lows : (1) The Ends in View in Intermediate Geography ; (2) 
The Lesson-Method ; (3) The Subjects ; (4) The Preparation 
of Lessons ; and (5) The Recitation. 

The Ends in Vie\^ in Intermediate Geography. There 
are four ends in view in intermediate geography lessons : (1) 
The Enlargement of Concepts; (2) The Multiplication of 
Facts ; (3) Inductions ; and (4) Deductions. 

The Enlargement of Concepts. The cumulative process in 
the generalizations of the elementary lessons in geography is in- 
complete for several reasons : (1) The stages of the pupil's de- 
velopment are not equal to the tasks of complex generaliza- 
tion; and (2) The mass of experiences is insufficient for 
complete generalization. All the elementary concepts of geog- 
raphy should therefore be developed as fully as possible in the 
intermediate course. Such a concept as drainage, for example, 
should now be enlarged by comparing a greater number of 
cases and cases that are complex. (See the First and Third 
Principles of Instruction.) 

The Multiplication of Facts in Intermediate Geography. It 
is evidently impossible for a child to learn many complex facts 
of geography in three or four years. But, in order to think 
the greater truths of geography, there are two requisites : (1) 
The mind must compare a large number of facts ; and (2) The 
facts to be compared must have matured concepts for subjects 
and predicates. If, therefore, the pupil is not required to com- 
pare many facts, the definitions and principles at which he ar- 
rives will be weakly supported, and if he is not required to 
compare complex facts, the generalizations which he attempts 
will be Inferior conquests. In accordance with this require- 
ment pupils should observe many individuals before they frame 
a final definition of a continent, etc., and to compare complex 



304 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

individuals before they attempt to think comf)lex systems of 
rivers, winds, currents, etc. (See the Second and Tenth Prin- 
ciples of Instruction.) 

The Inductions of Intermediate Geography. As suggested 
in the preceding paragraph, the inductions of intermediate ge- 
ography should extend to such remote relations as will tend 
to emancipate the pupil. (See the Eighth Principle of Instruc- 
tion.) In accordance with this requirement, intermediate pupils 
learn the principles of continental drainage as well as those of 
neighborhood drainage, the principles of continental distribu- 
tion of life as well as those of limited areas, etc. 

The Deductions of Intermediate Geography. Inasmuch as 
the first requisite in valid deduction is a legitimate major pre- 
mise, the deductions of intermediate geography, as in all grades, 
must begin where induction ends. Within this limitation, how- 
ever, deduction should follow every induction. Obedience to 
this requirement will not only be corrective, but the habit will 
in time emancipate the learner from the common distraction of 
particulars, and place him in the centre of his geographical 
survey. This is the supreme end in science. (See the Eighth 
Principle of Instruction.) 

The Lesson-Method of Intermediate Geography. In- 
asmuch as the tasks to be performed are the same, except that 
they are more complex, the inductive-deductive plan already 
outlined and illustrated in elementary geograjjhy is to be con- 
tinued in connection with such modifications as the nature of 
the subjects may demand. (See the Fiftli Principle of Instruc- 
tion.) The text-book, as well as the supplementary work, 
should be a " balance" of description and explanation. (See 
the First Principle of Instruction.) More time should be de- 
voted to map-drawing, and the " constructive" method should 
be combined with the " imitative" method. (See the Sixth and 
Seventh Principles of Instruction.) 

Intermediate Map-Drawing. (1) The importance of map- 



GEOGRAPHY 305 

drawing as a stimulus to close observation is obvious. It fol- 
lows, (a) that geographical knowledge will be more perfect, 
and (6) that memories will be more persistent. (See the Laws 
of Mental Activity.) (2) The intermediate pupil should be 
required to represent as truly as possible the real features and 
proportions of the surfaces to be drawn. Inasmuch as this 
task necessitates a powerful effort of imagination, there will be 
two results, (a) Interest in geography will be promoted, and 
(6) The phenomena represented will be better understood. (3) 
Two species of map-drawing are to be recommended. First, 
the pupil should be required to observe the features to be rep- 
resented, and then to draw from memory. Second, the pupil 
should be required to measure the proportions to be repre- 
sented, and then to draw by " scale." The latter exercise is 
the proper supplement of the former from the stand-point of 
culture ; it also prepares the pupil to interpret and appreciate 
maps and globes. All cumbersome systems of "triangulation," 
etc., are to be avoided for obvious reasons. The pupil that is 
mature enough for constructive drawing should be required to 
draw the Mercator projections (see page 286), and then, since 
they are more accurate, the conic and spherical projections. 
These projections of parallels and meridians are simpler in 
the end, and decidedly more reasonable. (4) The subjects of 
intermediate map-drawing are somewhat as follows : (a) The 
continents, beginning with the simplest one ; (6) The pupil's 
county and State ; (c) The New England group ; (d) The 
Middle States group ; (e) The Southern States group ; (/) The 
States in the order in which the book takes them up ; (g) Other 
countries. (5) The drawings should, of course, represent at 
first principally the contour, relief, and drainage, but later on, 
as fast as the pupil becomes acquainted with the surface which 
he has represented, he should be required to represent also the 
distribution of plants, animals, races, manufactures, etc. ; the 
location of cities ; the routes of commerce ; the climatic belts, 

20 



306 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

etc. Studied in this way, geography will become very realistic 
and practical. It is difficult to see how an intelligent teacher 
can be satisfied with less than this work. In order to succeed 
in these tasks, the teacher must, of course, study some excellent 
system of map-drawing. 

The Subjects of Intermediate Geography. (1) The 
course in intermediate geography should cover about four 
years, the period corresponding to the grammar-school life of 
the pupil. (2) The subjects to be studied are virtually the 
same as in elementary geography, only that the " individuals" 
are more complex and the " relations" more remote. The 
order of the subjects, as well as their full enumeration, is to 
be sought in the text-book used. Professor Frye's " Interme- 
diate Geography" is possibly one of the best in the market. 
(3) Stress should be laid on the " interrelation" of physical 
and political facts. Obedience to this requirement will de- 
velop intelligence in geographical study, and thus brighten the 
pupil's pathway, while at the same time it honors " truth." 
This interrelation is strongly emphasized in Professor Frye's 
book. 

Preparation of Lessons. Whenever it is necessary, the 
teacher should pave tlie way for the lessons which he proposes 
to assign. This he can do by means of illustrations, apparatus, 
cabinet specimens, photographs, etc., and by referring the pupils 
to supplementary texts as well as reference books. The pupil 
should be required to study a lesson assigned in his text-book, 
to compare it with other texts, to use reference books, diction- 
ary, etc., and to draw. 

The Recitation in Intermediate Geography. (1) The 
pupil should not be allowed to bring his book to class, and the 
teacher should not use a book, except as a supplement in re- 
views. (2) The recitation should be partly written and partly 
oral, both in the interest of language and culture. Sometimes 
it may serve a special purpose to make the recitations wholly 



GEOGRAPHY 307 

written or wholly oral, or to alternate oral and written recita- 
tions. (3) The inductive system of questioning should be 
used in developing concepts, definitions, and principles. The 
preparation of the lesson can be tested by combining catechet- 
ical questions with the pupil's discussion of topics. (See 
Frye's " Outline.") The topical method should predominate 
in reviews. Great enthusiasm can be cultivated in the class 
by means of occasional talks on geography. This is the great 
opportunity of the scholarly teacher. Occasionally, too, the 
regular course should be interrupted by a recitation on current 
history. Such a lesson, if it be brought into its geographical 
relations, Avill reveal to the pupil the physical basis of history. 
The pupils should be invited to criticise the language, etc., of 
recitations, and to discuss interesting questions. (4) Drills on 
relief globes and outline maps should precede and accompany 
the lessons of the text-book. The ends in view in such drills 
are (a) to present geographical phenomena to the imagination ; 
and (b) to pave the way through the imagination for the under- 
standing and memory. In order to accomplish these tasks, 
the various features must not only be " pointed out," but de- 
scribed and studied. Great pains should be taken to cultivate 
the pupil's interest in these drills. (5) Recitations thus con- 
ducted will be in accordance with the " principles of instruc- 
tion." 

IV. THE HIGHER COURSE IN GEOGRAPHY. 

The purpose of this treatise limits the treatment of the 
higher course in geography to the following topics : (1) The 
Tasks of Higher Geography ; (2) The Gradation of the 
Course ; and (3) The Methods of Work. 

The Tasks of Higher Geography. The tasks of higher 
geography are as follows : (1) To observe the most complex 
" individuals" (subjects) and to study the " remotest" relations 
(connections) in geography ; (2) To develop teachers of geog- 
raphy ; and (3) To develop geography, i.e., to contribute to 



308 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

the " science" of geography. The first task is to be attempted 
in high schools and colleges, and in the interests of scientific 
culture ; the second task belongs to Normal Schools ; and the 
third to the University. (See the First, Second, Third, and 
Ninth Principles of Instruction.) 

The Gradation of the Higher Geography Course. 
There are three stages in the course of higher geography, (1) 
The High School and College Course ; (2) The Normal School 
Course ; and (3) The University Course. 

Hi(jh Scliool and College Geography. In the elementary 
and intermediate courses, the most complex physical individ- 
uals (subjects) and the remotest relations were beyond the 
puj)irs power. In the high-school period he becomes mature 
enough to attempt an ordinary text-book on " physical" geog- 
raphy. In the college period he can take up " comparative" 
geography. Guyot's " Earth and Man" and Ritter's " Com- 
parative Geography" are appropriate texts. 

Normal School Geography. The Normal Scliool ought to 
provide courses in (1) Political Geography, (2) Physical Geog- 
raphy, and (3) Tiie Pedagogics of Geography. The texts of 
Guyot and Kitter should be supplementary, and Frye's " The 
Child and Nature" deserves the most careful study. 

University Geography. The University should ])rovide 
courses in (1) Comparative Geography, (2) The Correlation of 
Geograjihy and History, and (3) Original Investigation. 

The Methods of Higher Geography. (1) The sources 
of information in higher geography should be multiplied as 
much as possible. (2) The strictest logic should pervade both 
preparation and recitation. (3) The " science-method," i.e., 
the "laboratory" method, must, of course, predominate in 
the university work in geography. 



GEOGRAPHY 309 

V. THE IMPORTANCE OF GEOGRAPHY. 

Perhaps no subject in the public school curriculum has 
greater merits as an educational means. (See the lleport 
of the " Committee of Fifteen.") Four points deserve our 
present consideration, (1) The Culture Value of Geography ; 
(2) The Instruction Value of Geography ; (3) The Practical 
Value of Geography ; and (4) The Training of the Geogra- 
phy Teacher. 

The Culture Value of Geography. The nature of the 
subject and the necessary lesson-method call into vigorous ser- 
vice all the functions of the mind. (The student of methods 
should be required to show the details of tliis truth.) 

The Instruction Value of Geography. The facts and 
truths of geography are not only very interesting in them- 
selves, but, by reason of their bearing on other studies and 
on the happiness of man, they deserve also to be a part of 
thorough scholarship. 

The Practical Value of Geography. The study of geog- 
raphy comes into direct connection with industry, commerce, 
travel, political transactions, general intelligence, etc. (The 
student of methods should be required to work out the details 
of this problem.) 

The Training of the Geography Teacher. Inasmuch as 
the possibilities of geography are so great, the teacher's re- 
sponsibility must be proportionally great. In order to per- 
form his tasks with justice to the subject and with satisfaction 
to himself, a twofold training is necessary : (1) A training in 
the "subject" of geography; and (2) A training in the prin- 
ciples and methods of t<?aching geography. These two j)re])- 
arations should, of course, go hand in hand as true comple- 
ments. 



310 PEINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 



CHAPTEK X. 

HISTORY. 

Inasmuch as the first requisite in ideal instruction is a 
definite conception of the branch to be taught, this chapter 
must be an inquiry into (1) The Nature of History, and (2) 
Instruction in History. 

A. THE NATURE OF HISTORY. 

The nature of history is conveniently considered under the 
following heads: (1) The "Subject" of History; (2) The 
Psychology of History ; and (3) The History of History. 

I. THE "SUBJECT" OF HISTORY. 

In the same sense as plants are the subjects of botany, events 
are the subjects of history. 

" History" vs. " Natural History." In its widest appli- 
cation, history is the study of all events, impersonal as well 
as personal. The differences between such impersonal events 
as the life of a plant or an animal, and such personal events 
as the career of a man or the achievements of a nation, are so 
great as to justify the division in history commonly denoted 
by the terms " Natural History" and " History." Only those 
events in which persons are in question, such as the career of 
individuals, the development of institutions (schools, churches, 
states, commerce, etc.), the progress of civilization, etc., consti- 
tute the subject of history in its strictest sense. 

II. THE PSYCHOLOGY OF HISTORY. 

There are two tasks in history : (1) The ascertainment of 
facts, and (2) Inquiry into the relations of facts. Therefore, 
the necessary processes in history are (1) Observation, and (2) 



HISTORY 311 

Explanation. (See the Fifth Principle of Knowledge and 
the Second Principle of Instruction,) 

Observation. The facts of history are known (1) By one's 
own observation, i.e., by direct observation ; and (2) Through 
the medium of other observers, i.e., by indirect observation. 

Direct Observation. The witness of an event ascertains 
facts by means of judgment combined with perception. A 
general, for example, knows facts by means of his senses. 
This mode of observation is termed Direct Observation. The 
reliability of direct observation depends on two factors, (1) 
The nature of the fact, and (2) The character of the witness. 
An ordinary observer may correctly ascertain simple facts, but 
only an expert can ascertain the facts in complex events. A 
reporter, for example, might correctly observe the transactions 
of a skirmish, while only the initiated commander could fully 
observe the features of a campaign. In any case, prejudice 
vitiates the process of observation. 

Indirect Observation. Authors of treatises on history are 
rarely actual witnesses of events. They must ascertain facts 
through the medium of witnesses or their records. This mode 
of ascertaining the facts of history is termed Indirect Obser- 
vation. Indii'ect observation presupposes (1) The competence 
of witnesses, and (2) The credibility of documents. The in- 
competence and prejudice of witnesses and the credulity of 
authors creep so readily into the records of events, that all 
history has been called " a lie." This charge is obviously too 
strong, but it emphasizes the difficulty of the historian's tasks 
when he must ascertain facts indirectly. 

Explanation. Inquiry into the relations of events is 
termed Explanation. The two tasks of explanation are (1) 
The ascertainment of laws (the invariableness in causes and 
effects) ; and (2) Prevision in accordance with laws. The 
necessary processes (see the Fifth Principle of Knowledge and 
the Tenth Principle of Instruction) are (1) Induction and (2) 



312 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

Deduction. The former process makes history a science ; the 
latter reduces it to practical rules of life. 

Induction in History. Two features of induction in history 
deserve special attention : 

(1) The complexity of the task is very great. Facts must 
be ascertained before laws can be discovered. (See the Fifth 
and Sixth Principles of Knowledge.) This preparatory ascer- 
tainment of facts is a difficult task (see preceding paragraph) ; 
but a greater difficulty presents itself in the " second premise" 
of the inductive argument. In the following syllogism, for 
example, the second premise is very bold : 

The Romans and other people rebelled against oppression ; 

These nations represent human nature ; 

Therefore all nations will rebel against oppression. 

The variety of conditions to which the nations of different 
lineage, centuries, and places are subject by reason of religious, 
social, political, physical, and other differences, makes it seem- 
ingly impossible to foreknow what a people will do against 
oppression. That the task is not really impossible is assumed 
on two grounds, (a) The remarkable uniformity in human 
nature ; and (6) The cumulative force of examples. 

(2) The complexity of the task of ascertaining laws in his- 
tory, as well as the belief in the possibility of such ascertain- 
ment, though its success has thus far been only partial, appear 
in the fact that there are three distinct theories of history. 
(a) The materialistic theory, briefly stated, is that events are 
the direct effects of man's conditions. This theory fails to do 
justice to God and man as causes of events ; it virtually de- 
nies that freedom is an endowment of mind. (6) The thelstic 
theory, that events are the direct workings of God, also fails 
to do justice to the character of God, and ignores man's ob- 
vious participation in events, (c) The spiritualistic theory, that 
events are acts of mind, assumes that God permits and partici- 
pates in events, and that man's conditions are the stimuli in 



HISTORY 313 

events. Inasmuch as this theory does justice to God's charac- 
ter, and gives a consistent account of human nature in its re- 
lation to circumstances, it is obviously the true exjilanation of 
history. On account of the many factors that enter into the 
problem, the full development of explanatory history (philos- 
ophy of history) will require centuries ; but even now this 
philosophy is fast becoming the realized dream of historians, 
and, in time, it will be matured into as exact a system as 
astronomy, geology, and biology. 

Deduction in History. Two features of deduction in his- 
tory deserve special attention : 

(1) It is possible to reckon out the exact course of any fu- 
ture cannon-ball because we know the forces that enter into its 
composition, but it is far more difficult to foreknow events in 
history, because we do not know exactly the moral momentum, 
gravity, friction, etc., that will enter into human affairs. These 
diiFerences in the conditions of events are so great as to make 
prevision difficult even for such experts as political leaders. 

(2) To many great thinkers this difficulty in history seems 
insurmountable. But the supposition that prevision in history 
is impossible seems too sweeping ; it fails to account for the 
common conviction that history as experience is " the best 
teacher." This conviction is the practical argument in favor 
of history as a branch of study in our schools. Although 
such prevision is not identical with prophecy, it serves a very 
practical purpose in the education of a citizen. 

Definition of History. Observation, induction, and de- 
duction are, accordingly, the essential processes in history. 
But these processes, together with a systematic statement of 
results, constitute science. Therefore history is a science. In- 
asmuch as events are the " subject" of history, it is completely 
defined as the science of events. 

Species of History. Various convenient divisions of the 
task of history are possible. Thus arise the species of history 



314 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

known as Biography (the history of a person), Fragments of 
History (the history of an epoch of time), Compends of His- 
tory (the history of the great events of a country), General 
History (the history of nations through all epochs of time), 
Complete History (the history of all the events of a nation), 

etc. 

III. THE HISTORY OF HISTORY. 

The history of history is a most interesting study. Our 
inquiry must be limited to two topics, (1) The Stages in the 
Evolution of History ; and (2) The Present Status of History. 

Stages in the Evolution of History. Herodotus is 
known as the " Father of History." In one sense this is not 
true, for epic poetry, inscription, aud legends are forms of 
descriptive history. It is true, these forms of history are not 
literally credible, but as efforts they must be classified with 
descriptive history. Accordingly, deseriptive history began in 
the very earliest times. Explanatory history began in modern 
times. German, French, and English historians, such as 
Raumer, Guizot, and Green, tried to trace effects to their 
causes, but rarely attempted anything like prevision. It is 
only lately, and possibly through the stimulus of Guizot's 
efforts, that explanatory history is becoming philosophy and 
practical guidance. 

The Present Status of History. Modern school histories 
for younger pupils are rather descriptive than explanatory, 
and when, as in the books of Fisher, Myers, Montgomery, 
Morris, and others, explanations are attempted, they are retro- 
spective rather than prospective views. It is only in univer- 
sities that history is beginning to be evolved into a philosophy 
of events, the purpose being to develop historians and philo- 
sophical scholarship. It is to be earnestly hoped that our 
school histories may soon be developed into a })ractical guid- 
ance study, in somewhat the same sense as arithmetic, grammar, 
and botany are guidance studies. 



HISTORY 315 

B. INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY. 

To meet the requirements of ideal instruction, the teacher 
of history must understand, (1) The Courses of History ; (2) 
The Tasks of the Courses ; (3) The Methods of Instruction, 
and (4) The Importance of History. 

The Courses of History. The logical relation of events 
is inseparable from their relations in space and time. This 
conjunction imposes upon the student of history the unique 
necessity of thinking events in space and time in order to 
understand the course of events — as causes and effects ; it also 
helps to determine the phases of complexity in the relations 
of events. The consequent series of subjects and tasks con- 
stitutes the courses of history as science. These courses (with- 
out going into the argument that reveals them, since the reader 
is expected to find a parallel argument in the chapter on geog- 
raphy) are as follows : (1) The Elementary Course ; (2) The 
Intermediate Course ; and (3) The Higher Course. 

I. THE ELEMENTARY COURSE IN HISTORY. 
Each course of history has its specific tasks, methods, and 
subjects. Inasmuch as tasks determine methods and suggest 
subjects, these topics will be taken up in order. 

a. THE TASKS OF ELEMENTARY HISTORY. 

The sjjecific tasks of instruction in elementary history are 
(1) To construct simple events in the pupil's imagination and 
memory ; and (2) To cause inquiry into the immediate (ob- 
vious) relations of events. The performance of these tasks 
virtually satisfies the requirements of ideal instruction. (See 
the chapter on Principles of Instruction.) 

The Construction of Events in the Pupil's Mind. The 
pupil must construct the teacher's account of simple events 
into seeming realities, as adults do when they read the account 
of Napoleon crossing the Alps. Since this process of imagina- 



316 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

tion is the pupil's substitute for perception, and the only prac- 
tical substitute, it is a sj)ecific necessity in history. The events 
thus constructed in imagination must, of course, be impressed 
upon the memory of the pupil and made permanent posses- 
sions of his mind. 

Inquiry into the Relations of Events. The conception 
of events and memory are only introductory processes in the 
study of history. This introduction, however, in combination 
with simple judgment, furnishes the pupil's mind with the facts 
of space and time, and thus prepares the pupil to see the con- 
nection of events as parts, and as causes and effects. It is only 
the most obvious (immediate) relations of events that are 
appropriate subject-matter for beginners in history, but to re- 
press inquiry, or to require pupils to imagine and remember 
events without stimulating rational inquiry, is to stultify the 
pupil's reasoning powers. There are many opportunities even 
in elementary classes for simple induction and deduction, and 
to miss such opportunities is to fail as a teacher. (See the 
Sixth and Tenth Principles of Instruction.) When, for ex- 
ample, the pupil has learned the story of Penn's treaty with 
the Indians at Philadelphia, he should be induced to ask why 
Penn treated the Indians as he did, how the Indians kept their 
word to Penn, whether they abcays (law) kept their promises, 
what therefore was the best way to get along with Indians. 
In this series of inquiries, simple and natural enough for chil- 
dren, the whole pupil (intellect, feeling, and will) is virtually 
called into activity. Thus all the requirements of ideal in- 
struction are satisfied. 

b. THE METHOD OF ELEMENTARY HISTORY. 

Suitable means and effective management of means are the 
two essentials of a good method. We must, accordingly, con- 
sider at this point (l)The Means in Elementary History ; and 
(2) The Events of a Recitation in Elementary History. 



HISTORY 317 

The Means in Elementary History. The possibility of 
representing space and time concretely by means of pictures, 
maps, and charts makes these the most suitable, if not (see 
the Fourth Principle of Knowledge) the indispensable, means 
in elementary history, where, as we have just seen, one end 
in view in accordance with the principles of instruction is to 
represent events concretely to the imagination, thus aiding not 
only the memory but especially also the understanding of 
events as contents of space and time. Books adapted to the 
pupil's capacity, and planned with special reference to the 
child's love of concrete thought, are the appropriate supple- 
ments, and should become regular means the third year of his- 
tory. (See the first four Principles of Instruction.) 

The Events of a Recitation in Elementary History. 
A recitation in elementary history should consist of three 
events : (1) Reconstruction, (2) Additional Construction, and 
(3) Explanation. 

Reconstruction. A recitation in history should begin with 
review, and the review should begin as far back as time allows 
or logic requires. Two desirable results can be accomplished 
by means of such reviews : (1) The pupil's acquisitions be- 
come permanent possessions, and (2) The cumulative junction 
of old and new lessons aids the pupil's understanding and 
promotes interest. In these reviews the pupil should be re- 
quired to start at some definite point of time, or with some 
definite fact, and tell what he knows in a connected way, with 
as little interruption on the part of the teacher as possible. 
More than one pupil should be requested to tell the same story 
in speech or writing ; this will stimulate competitive efforts. 
All the members of the class must be made to understand that 
they may be called upon to supplement or repeat the recita- 
tion of any other member. In the hands of a knowing teacher, 
such reviews become both stepping-stones and incentives to the 
" new matter" of a recitation. Inasmuch as these reviews are 



318 TRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

corrective, they are indispensable to the constructive process 
that must follow ; apart from such correction all additions are 
likely to be blunders in architecture. 

Construction. The constructive work of a recitation in ele- 
mentary history consists of instruction, integration, and cor- 
rection. (1) In the absence of text-books, and in accordance 
with the requirements of elementary instruction (see Princi- 
ples of Instruction), the teacher relates additional history to 
his class, using objects, pictures, relics, charts, maps, etc., to 
illustrate his narratives, and proceeding in such a way as to 
require the pupils to interpret what they hear by comparing 
it with experiences. The procedure should be as perfect a sub- 
stitute of actual observation as possible. The teacher must be 
careful to adapt the " new matter" which he relates to the 
pupil's interest and present powers. He must also be certain 
of the attention of the whole class. (2) In ideal instruction 
the pupil's mind is at work as it would be in actual observa- 
tion. To make sure of this, and to assist the j)rocess, the 
pupil must be required to describe in his OAvn way the new 
structure in his mind. In other words, this descriptive process 
is important for three reasons : it requires the pupil's attention 
to the teacher's instruction ; it renders the facts learned con- 
crete in their integration by constructing them in the imagina- 
tion ; and it is an excellent discipline in language. (3) To 
make sure that the structure whi(;h the teacher is trying to 
construct in the pupil's imagination and memory is not de- 
fective, and that all the members of the class are building suc- 
cessfully, he must ask " search -light," or " X-ray" questions. 
It is essential to ideal instruction that the teacher should be a 
master in this corrective process. 

JExjdanation. In order to exhaust the possibilities of the 
recitation in elementary history, and to improve as well as 
employ the whole pupil (intellect, feeling, and Avill), explana- 
tion must be added to review and description. (See the 



HISTORY 319 

Fourth, Seventh, and Tenth Principles of Instruction.) Ex- 
planation, as was pointed out, is an inquiry into relations. 
The process begins with induction and ends in deduction. In 
elementary history, only the obvious (immediate) relations are 
appropriate subject matter. 

Suggestion. In due time suitable books should be brought 
into the recitation as supplements to the teacher's narratives 
and explanations. The teacher may sometimes read what he 
has already told the class, or partly developed in their minds 
by means of questions, thus leading the pupils to see the use 
of books, and stimulating the desire to read. He may also 
suggest books to be read by the pupils. A suitable text-book 
should become the basis of the recitations the third year. 

The " Subjects" of Elementary History. The possi- 
bility of interesting pupils, and the working possibilities of 
the class, determine the choice of subjects in elementary his- 
tory. (See Principles of Instruction.) Accordingly, elemen- 
tary history should begin with interesting biography. (1) 
Inasmuch as local biography is nearest to the child's imagina- 
tion, it is the best introduction to history in its larger sense. 
(2) The second half of the first year should be devoted to 
those persons around whom the great events of American his- 
tory cluster. Introducing the class to the most appropriate 
characters of each epoch somewhat in their chronological 
order and in close association with their geography, the teacher 
should endeavor especially to develop right concepts and atti- 
tudes in pupils. 

Having become acquainted with the representative charac- 
ters of American biography, the pupil is prepared to study 
collections of persons. Those events that stand out conspic- 
uous in the various epochs of American history, and which 
must be made the subject of extended study in later years, are 
practically the most appropriate subjects for the second year 
in history. 



320 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

Pupils introduced into history in the way just suggested 
should be ready to take up such an elementary text-book as 
Montgomery's the third year. Lessons should be regularly 
assigned and prepared as supplements to the teacher's instruc- 
tion, but the requirements should not be difficult. Such a 
persuasive introduction to a book is of the greatest importance 
to a right conception of the function of books in general. 

II. THE INTERMEDIATE COURSE IN HISTORY. 

The course of history which is appropriate to the average 
grammar-school pupil is conveniently termed the intermediate 
course. 

a. THE TASKS OF INTERMEDIATE HISTORY. 

The characteristic tasks of intermediate history are as fol- 
lows : the conception of individuals (subjects) of greater com- 
plexity ; the multiplication of concepts (characters, events) ; 
and inquiry into remoter relations of cause and effect. 

Imagination of Complex Subjects. According to the 
requirements of ideal instruction, the more complex phases of 
men (and events) to whom the pupil was introduced in the 
elementary course are appropriate subjects in the intermediate 
course. Washington, for example, was known to the elemen- 
tary pupils as an exemplary son, a heroic youth, etc. ; but to 
the intermediate pupil he becomes an officer in the French and 
Indian Wars, the commander-in-chief in the Revolutionary 
War, and finally the President of the United States. These 
wars, too, were known to the elementary pupils, but only in 
their simplest phases. The intermediate pupil observes strong- 
holds, armies, marches, battles, retreats, treaties, etc. 

Addition of Subjects. Men and events to which the ele- 
mentary pupils were not introduced at all must be introduced 
in the intermediate course. In other words, intermediate his- 
tory deals not only with subjects of greater comj)lexity, but 



HISTORY 321 

also increases the number of subjects as much as the nature 
of the case may require. 

Inquiry into Remoter Relations. It becomes necessary 
for the intermediate pupil to study not only the causes and 
effects of isolated events, but also their connection as a course 
of events. It would, of course, be unreasonable to expect 
philosophical insight at this stage of history, but pupils ready 
for the average high school should know at least the " thread" 
of American history and such principles of American civic life 
as fit them to be good citizens, even if they should never be 
able to take a high-school course. 



6. THE METHOD OF INTERMEDIATE HISTORY. 

The following topics deserve our attention at this point : 
(1) The Necessary Means in Intermediate History ; (2) The 
Preparation of Lessons ; and (3) The Events of a Recita- 
tion. 

The Necessary Means. Since pupils of the intermediate 
course in any branch of study should be required to depend 
more upon themselves than upon the teacher as a source of in- 
formation, they must be supplied with the necessary substi- 
tutes: (1) The pupil of intermediate history needs a syste- 
matic catalogue of subjects to be studied. A text-book such 
as Montgomery's " Common School History" is therefore in- 
dispensable. (2) The habit of comparing authorities — a most 
important habit in education — should begin in the interme- 
diate course of history. The pupil should therefore have 
access to supplementary text-books. (3) A text-book is only 
an outline of that which may be known on most subjects. As 
a stimulus to broader and deeper scholarship, reference books 
are indispensable. (4) Then, too, it is impossible to under- 
stand history apart from its geography. The pupil should 
therefore have access to suitable maps, charts, etc. Relief 

21 



322 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

maps of battle-fields, etc., made of papier-macM are especially 
helpful to the ])npil. 

The Preparation of Lessons. Economy and discipline 
require that in the case of intermediate j)upils in history the 
preparation and recitation of lessons should be distinct events. 

The Teacher' s Preparation. There are at least two reasons 
why the teacher's mastery of the subject to be taught should 
l)e as perfect as possible : (1) Such mastery is likely to enthuse 
the teacher, so that he works with ])urpose and energy. (2) 
The teacher must master a subject with all his powers in order 
that he may know what mental activities to call into service in 
his pupils and in what order. Knowing tliese points, he can 
form an intelligent plan fijr the prospective recitation, choose 
the best means, and prepare himself to use these means most 
effectively. Thus it follows that the teacher of history must 
study the pupil's text- book in connection with other text- 
books, ma])S, j)i(^tures, dictionaries, encyclopaedias, etc., think 
every lesson into its connection with preceding and following 
lessons, and plan tlie recitation to meet all the requirements. 

The Pujnl^s Preparation. A definite lesson having been 
assigned, and helpful directions given, the pupil should be re- 
quired to study his text in connection with other texts, maps, 
cy(!lopffidias, and the dictionary. The teacher must insist on 
important dates, names, places, etc. Every pupil should be 
made to feel that every lesson ought to improve his vocabulary 
and senten(!cs, but no pupil sliould be allowed to commit the 
text. The habit of thinking the lesson in one's own language, 
arranging the thoughts of the lesson into a system, and bring- 
ing it into connection with ]wst lessons, should be developed 
in all pupils. Pi-ogressivc! maps and outlines may be required 
as part of the jireparation of pu])ils in intermediate history. 

The Recitation in Intermediate History. The items to 
be considered in tliis coimection are as follows : (1) Written 
Work ; (2) Oral Work ; (3) The Examination of the Writ- 



HISTORY 323 

ten Work ; (4) The Assignment of Lessons ; and (5) Review 
Recitations. 

Wiitten Work. (1) The following are obvious merits of 
written work in recitations : it is a stimulus to thorough prep- 
aration of lessons ; it is a better test of the pupil's preparation 
and capacity ; it enables the teacher to employ more pupils 
simultaneously ; it is the teacher's best opportunity to present 
the " thread" of history in the questions which he prepares 
for those pupils wiio are to write out the recitation ; it is a fine 
opportunity for the pupil to tell in a connected way what he 
knows and thinks ; and it is an excellent supplement to the 
regular work in composition. (2) The black-board is the most 
suitable means for written work in recitations. The places at 
the board should be numbered. Numbered questions — a logi- 
cal series of questions, the scries beginning in r(!views and 
bringing these into connection with the advance lesson, the 
whole arrangement so planned as to cover the ground in out- 
line — carefully prepared by the teacher should be placed be- 
low the corresponding numbers over the black-board as soon 
as the class is ready for work. As soon as these questions 
have been assigned to the class " by numbers," the persons to 
whom the numbers were assigned should be requested to pass 
to the board, write their name at the top, copy the question, 
analyze it into topics, and proceed to write out the necessary 
paragraphs. (3) The teacher should spare no efforts to dfjvelop 
in his pupils right habits and tastes in spelling, punctuation, 
capitalization, diction, sentence qualities, plan of paragraphs, 
penmanship, etc. No book should be allowed in the recita- 
tion. Both pupils and teachers should cultivate self-reliance. 

Oral Work. While part of the class is reciting at the board, 
the teacher puts questions to the other members of the class, 
requires oral answers, conducts drills, offers suggestions, etc. 
A skilful teacher can make this oral work a stimulus to prep- 
aration of lessons, a discipline in thinking, a valuable means 



324 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

of instruction, and an excellent opportunity in the develop- 
ment of the pupil's power to speak. 

The Examination of the Work on the Board. When about 
half the time allotted to the recitation has expired, and all the 
writers have returned from the board, the examination of the 
board should begin. The writers should read in the order of 
the numbers on the board. The reading of both questions 
and answers should be distinct, forcible, and elegant. The 
whole class should be required to hold themselves in readiness 
to criticise, but always in strict subordination to the teacher's 
supervision. The teacher should supplement, correct, and 
instruct whenever time allows and wherever it is proper. In 
the performance of this task skill in drawing will be very 
helpful, and superior scholarship will be an inspiration to the 
class. 

The Assignment of Lessons. In advanced classes and in 
cases where the teacher can estimate the probabilities, the next 
lesson may be assigned before the regular work of a recitation 
begins. Commonly, however, it is best to assign the next les- 
son at the close of a recitation. The teacher's assignments 
should be very definite. The pupil should be directed to the 
various sources of information, and helpful suggestions should 
be added. 

A Review Recitation. In addition to the reviews with which 
all recitations should begin, there should be special reviews as 
often as time permits and necessity dictates. In these review 
recitations the questions on the board should be a progressive 
series, i.e., events should be considered in their chronological 
order. The oral questions may be ]nit in reverse order for 
variety and discipline. This regressive order is rather diflfi- 
cult for younger pupils. 

The " Subjects" of Intermediate History. (1) An ordi- 
nary text-book on history is the best practical catalogue of 
subjects in intermediate history. (2) In order to be a suitable 



HISTORY 325 

text-book, it should be adapted in subject-matter, plan, and 
language to the stages of the pupil's development. The sub- 
ject-matter should not be too abstract and general. The plan 
of a book for intermediate pupils should be rather ethno- 
graphic than synchronistic ; it should be logical, but not too 
complex. The vocabulary for a class in intermediate history 
should be unpretentious, precise, and not too copious, while 
the structure of sentences and paragraphs should be simple, 
concise, and elegant. 

III. THE HIGHER COURSE IN HISTORY. 

The study of history in the high school, normal school, col- 
lege, and university deserves for several reasons to be termed 
the higher course in history : (1) The ends in view are higher; 
and (2) The scientific method, though employed in miniature 
in the elementary course, and with considerable strictness in 
the intermediate course, is pressed to its utmost limits in the 
higher institutions of learning. 

The Tasks of Higher History. There are several distinct 
ends in view in higher history : (1) To train the student so 
thoroughly in the subject-matter and method of history that 
he will realize its intrinsic merits, and therefore love and study 
it after school days have ended. (2) To equip the general stu- 
dent and the great professions with such knowledge of history 
as is needed in their various pursuits. (3) To pursue the 
study of history as science and philosophy, and to contribute 
as much as possible to the development of the science and jihi- 
losophy of history. 

The Distribution of " Subjects" in Higher History. 
Inasmuch as tlie method of study and recitation in higher his- 
tory, though somewhat modified to suit maturer minds, is vir- 
tually the same as before, no additional description is neces- 
sary at this point. It seems necessary, however, as a matter 
of instruction for young men and women, to map out a suit- 



326 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

able course in higher history. The following outline is re- 
spectfully submitted : 

High-School History. (1) Our high schools should offer a 
course in general history, as much as may be found in Myers ; 
and, if time allows, a special course in Greek, Roman, and 
English history should be added. (2) A course in civil gov- 
ernment also belongs to the high-school course in history. 
Every high-school graduate should know enough about the 
Constitution of his own State and that of the United States to 
enable him to be a good citizen, and, if need be, a good officer. 

Normal-School History. (1) Normal schools should offer a 
very thorough course in the history of the United States, gen- 
eral history, and civil government. (2) The pedagogics of 
history must, of course, be added. 

College History. It devolves on colleges to offer courses 
in general history, special courses in the history of the great 
nations, courses in the various departments of civics, and a 
course in the philosophy of history. 

University History. It belongs to the university (1) to offer 
an extended course in the philosophy of history ; and (2) to 
develop the science and philosophy of history by original con- 
tributions. The method of the university must, of course, be 
scientific in the fullest sense, and implies original investiga- 
tions. 

IV. THE IMPORTANCE OF HISTORY. 

It must be admitted that such a catalogue of events, dates, 
and names as frequently passes for history is perhaps interest- 
ing enough as reading-matter, but of no special value in the 
education of a man or woman. The fact that history has too 
commonly consisted of such enumerations, and that these are 
so often simply committed to memory, is deplorable enough. 
But history is more than " a record of events" ; it is a science, 
and as such must be a valuable instrument in education. The 



HISTORY 327 

opinions of Compayre, Fitch, and the " Committee of Fif- 
teen" on this subject are particularly interesting. 

The Culture-Value of History. Inasmuch as history is 
a science, the necessary method of study calls into service the 
whole pupil (intellect, feeling, and will). The study of his- 
tory, as we know from a consideration of its method, is a most 
excellent means in the training of the imagination, memory, 
judgment, reasoning, conscience, patriotism, etc. 

The Instruction- Value of History. As the science of 
events, history is a school-master of citizens and moral agents. 
(1) History is the citizen's school-master because it teaches 
him the laws of national life just as effectively as physiology 
teaches the laws of physical life. (2) A knowledge of causes 
and effects in the moral career of historical characters is moral 
philosophy in the concrete. 

A Source of Satisfaction. To thinking men and women 
the science of events must be a source of great satisfaction. 
Just as people who have never viewed the world of nature 
from its mountain-tops rejoice with exceeding great joy on 
finally beholding the glories and wonders of earth, so do those 
who behold the world "as it was and is and shall be" rejoice 
in the gratification of their philosophic senses. 

The Training of Teachers of History. Since the study 
of history can be made such a valuable instrument in educa- 
tion, it must be obvious that the responsibility of teachers of 
history is very great. This conclusion obtains added force 
from the fact that history has so commonly been taught simply 
as "a record of events" and by the "rote" method. It fol- 
lows, therefore, that teachers of history need a thorough train- 
ing (1) in history itself, and (2) in the pedagogics of history. 



328 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 
CHAPTER XL 

DRAWING. 

The true object of instruction is to cause right mental 
processes in pupils. (See the Principles of Instruction.) It 
is obvious that, in order to cause right mental processes in 
teaching any branch of study, the teacher should hncm those 
processes. Therefore, the pedagogics of drawing is concerned 
with two general topics : (1) The Nature of Drawing ; and (2) 
Instruction in Drawing. 

A. THE NATURE OF DRATVING. 

The nature of drawing is most conveniently studied under 
the following heads : (1) The Subject of Study ; (2) The Psy- 
chology of Drawing ; (3) The Definition of Drawing ; and (4) 
The History of Drawing. 

I. THE SUBJECT OF STUDY. 

In the sense in which arithmetic is the study of numbers, 
drawing is the study of linear representation of forms. 

Linear Representation of Forms. It is possible to simu- 
late the real outline of objects so perfectly on a flat surface that 
on seeing the representation we recognize the intended sem- 
blance. This linear representation of objects is termed Draw- 
ing. Three things in the process of drawing require special 
attention : (1) The Length of Lines ; (2) The Direction of 
Lines ; and (3) Marks of Expression. 

The Length of Lilies. There are two modes of determining 
the length of lines in drawing : (1) The length-facts of an 
object may be observed and represented without the aid of 
measuring instruments. (2) The length-facts of an object may 



DRAWING 329 

be observed and represented by means of measuring instru- 
ments, such as the foot-rule, compass, etc. 

The Direction of Lines. (1) The lines of a drawing that 
represents a plane surface to the eye directly in front of its 
centre have the same direction as the lines of the surface rep- 
resented in the drawing. (2) As the distance from the eye 
increases, the surface of an object seems to grow smaller. (See 
Natural Philosophy.) For the same reason receding surfaces 
seem smaller. This appearance of objects is represented in 
drawings by convergent receding and shortened vertical lines. 
The position directly opposite the eye is indicated by a point 
on the paper, and all receding lines representative of the edges 
of objects are drawn to that point. Vertical lines, of course, 
remain vertical in the drawing ; but, since the paper is sup- 
posed to lie in a vertical plane, the vertical lines become shorter 
as the distance from the point of vision increases, the length 
being determined by the convergent lines. (3) There are two 
modes of representing the direction, as well as the lines : (1) 
" By eye," and (2) By means of instruments. 

Marks of Expression. (1) Light is the indispensable condi- 
tion of sight. It is on the sunny side of objects that the sur- 
faces are illuminated ; the opposite surfaces are darker, and 
shadows extend from them in the direction opposite from the 
light, the boundaries of which are determined by the lines 
that extend from the edges of the light past the object. (2) 
In drawing, some point from which the light is supposed to 
come must be assumed. The phenomena of light just de- 
scribed must be represented by corresponding light, darkness, 
and shadows. The marks that represent these phenomena 
are termed Marhs of Expression. Among the derivative phe- 
nomena that may be thus represented are rotundity, opacity, 
transparency, the grain of wood, the mechanical plan of sur- 
faces, relative tones of coloring, etc. 



330 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

II. THE PSYCHOLOGY OF DRAWING. 
The ideal method of studying linear representation of forms, 
as well as numbers or plants, or any other subject, consists of 
observation, induction, and deduction. (See the chapter on 
the Nature of Knowledge.) 

Observation in Drav^ing. The first step in the formal 
study of drawing is observation, i.e., the ascertainment of facts. 
Two species of facts must be ascertained in drawing : (1) The 
Form-Facts of Objects, and (2) The Representation-Facts of 
Form. 

The Form-Fads of Objects. The first thing to do in order 
to draw an object is to become acquainted with its outline, i.e., 
with its bounding lines, their direction, length, proportions, 
etc. If, for example, the student should wish to draw a haf, 
he must first ascertain the direction of the rim-lines, the 
breadth of the rim, the height and shape of the crown, the 
width of the band, etc. 

The Representation-Facts of Form. It is not enough in 
drawing to know the form-facts of an object ; the representa- 
tion-facts must also be ascertained. In other words, the ob- 
server must find out what lines will represent the object in 
question to the imagination. In the case of a hat, for exam- 
ple, the observer will find that a very small number of lines 
virtually represent the hat completely. 

Induction in Drawing-. Two species of laws must be as- 
certained in drawing : (1) The Form-Laws of Objects, and 
(2) The Laws of Form-Representation. 

The Form-Laws of Objects. It is found by comparison of 
the form-facts of objects that all objects are analyzable into 
the various elementary phases of the sphere, the cube, the cyl- 
inder, the cone, the pyramid, etc. These form-laws of objects 
must be developed in pupils just as any other law is developed, 
i.e., by hypothesis and proof. The development of the con- 



DRAWING 331 

cepts of the elementary forms, together with the terms and 
definitions that belong to their description, is the indispensa- 
ble task of pupils who would be masters in drawing. It is 
only when these concepts have become standards of compari- 
son that objects can be readily classified and represented. 

The Laws of Form-Representation, It is found by compari- 
son of facts that the length, direction, and repetition of lines 
which represent objects to the imagination are subject to law, 
just as the forms of objects are subject to law. (See Natural 
Philosophy.) (1) The relative lengths to be represented can be 
perfectly represented by means of a " scale of proportions." 
(2) The appearance of objects of three dimensions is a perspec- 
tive phenomenon subject to the laws of light, and therefore 
capable of mathematically correct representation, the main feat- 
ures of the problem being the point of vision, the level of the 
eye, and the position of the object. (3) The amount of light, 
or its absence, can be represented by such repetition of lines 
as will simulate the phenomena in question. 

The discovery of the laws of linear form-representation has 
made a science of drawing possible, and the study of these 
laws is as indispensable to great success in drawing as the 
study of the laws of numbers is to great success in arithmetic. 
It is only when these laws have become familiar that the 
countless diversities of object-forms can be satisfactorily rep- 
resented. 

Deduction in Drawing-. There are two deductive tasks 
in drawing : (1) The analysis of objects into type-forms, and 
(2) The linear representation of objects. 

Type-Form Analysis of Objects. The first thing to do in 
systematic drawing is to discover the elementary form or 
forms to which the object or imagination to be represented 
belongs. If, for example, the student wishes to draw a 
goblet, it is of the greatest advantage to him to see in the 
goblet-form the elementary square and circle. Apart from 



332 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

such analysis every task in drawing is an isolated, unclassified 
experiment. 

Linear Representation of Objects. There are two possible 
modes of linear representation : (1) The learner may observe 
and imitate the representation of an object. This mode of 
drawing does not presuppose the analysis of the objects to be 
drawn into the type-forms to which they belong. The task 
requires perception, memory, imagination, and direct compari- 
son, and is, therefore, the right thing for beginners. (See the 
First Principle of Instruction.) (2) The learner may observe 
the object to be drawn, analyze it into its type-forms, and 
draw it by rational representation. This task requires a 
knowledge of "scales of proportion," "perspective," and 
" mathematics," and is therefore possible only for maturer 
pupils. (See the Sixth Principle of Instruction.) 

The Definition of Drawing-. The method of study just 
described, together with a systematic statement of results, con- 
stitutes science. A science of drawing is therefore possible, 
its subject being linear representation of forms. But drawing, 
as a physical realization of science, is also an art. Indeed, 
this is the phase of drawing commonly in mind when the sub- 
ject is mentioned. Briefly summed up, drawing is the science 
and art of linear representation of forms. The following clas- 
sifications are convenient : (1) The linear representation of 
forms without the aid of measuring instruments is termed 
Free-Hand Drawing. (2) Representation by means of instru- 
ments is termed Mechanical Drawing. Both free-hand and 
mechanical drawing become perspective drawing when distance, 
direction, and light are taken into account. The special feat- 
ure of perspective drawing is the process known as " fore- 
shortening," i.e., the representation of two or three dimensions 
by means of shorter and fewer lines as determined by " point 
of vision." The terms descriptive, artistic, industrial, archi- 
tectural, etc., name the purposes for which a drawing may be 



DRAWING 333 

made. Crayoning and engraving are also regarded as species 
of drawing. 

The History of Drawing. The most ancient people had 
some knowledge of drawing. The Oriental nations, especially 
the Egyptians and the Babylonians, had a systematic knowl- 
edge of the subject. Greece and Rome developed drawing 
first into a fine and then into a useful art. Drawing was the 
handmaid of geometry, one of the famous " seven liberal arts" 
of the Middle Ages. The educational reformers, especially 
Comenius, Pestalozzi, Froebel, laid great stress on drawing. 
In modern education drawing has become an absolute neces- 
sity. 

In primitive times drawing served as a substitute for 
speech. The Egyptians were probably the first to produce a 
system of " picture" writings. In Greece the aesthetic impulse 
became the great stimulus to drawing. It has ever since con- 
tinued to be the handmaid of the fine arts. Drawing; first 
became an educational means in Egypt and Greece. Esthetic, 
moral, and practical interests have made drawing an impera- 
tive means in modern education. In connection with manual 
training, and as a part of it, drawing will acquire still greater 
importance. 

B. INSTRUCTION IN DRA"WTNG. 

The nature of drawing makes inquiry into the following 
subjects a necessity for teachers of drawing : (1) The Courses 
of Instruction in Drawing ; (2) The Subjects of Study in the 
Courses ; (3) The Methods of Instruction ; and (4) The Im- 
portance of Drawing, 

I. THE COURSES OF INSTRUCTION IN DRAWING. 
The number of necessary adaptations of the subject and 
method of drawing to the powers and needs of the pupils 
determines the number and character of the courses of instruc- 



334 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

tion. (See the Principles of Instruction.) The following 
topics, therefore, deserve attention : (1) The Nature of the 
Subject ; (2) Possibilities of the Pupil ; and (3) The Number 
of Courses. 

The Nature of the Subject. (1) Drawing "from pic- 
tures" requires observation and imitation. The mental func- 
tions thus brought into service are perception, memory, imagi- 
nation, direct comparison, interest, and attention. (2) Drawing 
" from objects" requires the analysis of the object to be drawn 
into type-forms and rational representation. The mental 
functions thus brought into service are perception, direct com- 
parison (implying memory, abstraction, and imagination), de- 
ductive reasoning (implying previous inductions and a train- 
ing in mathematics), and attention (implying interest). (3) 
Drawing " from problems," as in invention, requires rational 
comprehension of the conditions and rational representation. 
The task presupposes a knowledge of the elementary forms, 
simple and composite, and a training in mathematics. 

The Possibilities of the Pupil. (1) The power to imi- 
tate (see Courses of Penmanship) is a characteristic power of 
childhood. (2) The rational representation of objects of obser- 
vation, presupposing skill in imitation as well as considerable 
maturity in syllogistic thinking, is seldom possible before the 
latter part of the grammar-school epoch. (3) The rational rep- 
resentation of imaginations and problems requires a maturity 
in abstraction and mathematics which is seldom to be found 
before the high-school epoch. 

The Number of Courses in Drawing. In view of the 
psychology of drawing and the powers of pupils, it seems 
appropriate to arrange three courses of instruction in drawing : 
(1) The elementary, or imitative course, (2) The intermediate, 
or rational course ; and (3) The higher, or special course. 



DRAWING 335 

II. ELEMENTARY DRAWING. 

The following topics deserve our attention at this point: 
(1) The Subjects of Elementary Drawing, and (2) The Method 
of Instruction. 

The Subjects of Elementary Dra-w^ing. The passage 
from subject to subject in drawing should be from the simple 
to the complex, and from that which is known to that which 
is in logical relation with it. (See First and Second Princi- 
ples of Instruction.) Taking these requirements and the pos- 
sibilities of the pupil into consideration, it is believed that the 
following ground can be covered in about six years : 

(1) The sphere and its obvious resemblances in objects. 

(2) One face of the cube and its obvious resemblances. 
This step includes the square and the rectangle, together with 
such descriptive terms as straight line, right angle, etc. 

(3) Two faces of the cube from various points of vision 
and obvious resemblances. The worker begins with a front 
view, and, after choosing a centre of vision, completes the top 
face by first drawing receding lines and then choosing a rear 
line for the top face. Lessons on the right and left faces of 
the cube in connection with the front face should be added. 
The faces may be represented as open and containing interest- 
ing objects. No attempt should be made at this time to ex- 
plain the centre of vision and receding lines. The appeal in 
these lessons is principally to the child's great imitative power. 

(4) Three or more faces of the cube from various right and 
left positions, above and below the level of the eye, together 
with obvious resemblances. In the course of these lessons 
the pupil should be taught to recognize and name the three 
species of receding lines, parallel lines, and surfaces. Special 
lessons on the centre of vision and the horizon line will be 
necessary. 

(5) Easy composition of sphere and cube forms, together 
with obvious resemblances and applications. 



336 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

(6) The vertical cylinder in the various right and left posi- 
tions, above and below the level of the eye, together with ob- 
vious resemblances and applications. In connection with 
these lessons the child should learn to distinguish plane from 
curved and round surfaces. 

(7) The horizonal cylinder in the various positions, together 
with obvious resemblances and applications. 

(8) The receding cylinder in various positions, together with 
obvious resemblances and applications. 

(9) Easy composition of sphere, cube, and cylinder forms, 
including obvious resemblances and applications. Easy prob- 
lems may be added. 

(10) Lessons on the hemisphere, cone, prism, etc., may be 
introduced at this time. 

(11) Easy invention by line, including dictation, substitu- 
tion, and designing, should be gradually introduced, but not 
before the fifth or sixth year. 

The Method of Instruction in Elementary Drawing. 
Two points deserve our present attention : (1) The Preparation 
for Lessons in Elementary Drawing, and (2) The Recitation. 

Preparation for Lessons in Elementary Drawing. (1) The 
teacher of drawing should see to it that there is a supply of 
necessary materials at hand. A black-board and its belong- 
ings, paper and its belongings, and a collection of elementary 
forms are among the important materials in elementary draw- 
ing. A large assortment of larger and smaller objects that 
obviously resemble the elementary forms is a most valuable 
equipment in elementary drawing. (2) The teacher should prac- 
tise placing and drawing the objects that are to be used in the 
lessons. He should study how to introduce devices calculated 
to interest children long enough in a given form to teach it 
thoroughly. He should plan the steps which he must take, the 
questions, hints, etc., and try to be prepared for all emergencies. 

The Recitation in Elementary Drawing. The ideal method 



DRAWING 337 

of study, as already pointed out, consists of observation, in- 
duction, and deduction in the order just submitted. The ideal 
method of instruction (see Principles of Instruction) should, 
therefore, cause these processes in pupils. 

(1) The attention of the pupil must be directed to the form- 
facts of the object in question and to the teacher's representa- 
tion of these facts. The teacher must ask such questions and 
give such hints, etc., as may stimulate and help the observing 
pupil. In many instances this may need to be many times 
repeated before the pupil can draw '' from the picture," i.e., 
imitate the teacher's representation. It is at the pupil's suc- 
cessful imitation of his picture, however awkward such imita- 
tion may be at first, that the teacher of elementary drawing 
must aim. (See the First Principle of Instruction.) 

(2) It is not enough that the elementary pupil can draw the 
elementary forms in question ; he should be taught to look for 
obvious resemblances and possible applications until by and by 
that elementary form shall have become a general concept that 
serves him in his practical classification of objects. The 
teacher must, therefore, show the pupil how to convert the 
form in question into familiar object-forms. The happy sur- 
prise which this revelation will produce in pupils will stimu- 
late them to look for similar resemblances in the objects with 
which they meet. These conversions of an elementary form 
into familiar object-forms, and the teacher's representation of 
object-forms that obviously resemble the elementary form in 
question, should be imitated just as the elementary form itself 
was imitated. When the pupil can do this a great deal has 
been accomplished. (See the Fourth and Eighth Principles of 
Instruction.) 

(3) When the pupil has learned to recognize the elemen- 
tary form in question, and to draw it from the picture, and 
to imitate the teacher's conversions of the form into familiar 
object-forms, as well as his representation of object-forms that 

22 



338 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

obviously resemble the elementary form, he should be taught 
to draw, without the teacher's previous representation, such 
objects as obviously embody the form in question. This is 
termed " drawing from the object," and is a long step in ad- 
vance ; the pupil has now learned to draw deductively, which 
is the end aimed at in ideal instruction. (See the Eighth and 
Tenth Principles of Instruction.) 

(4) In due time the jjupil should be taught to " draw from 
problems." This task of invention implies familiarity with 
the lines, surfaces, and possible positions of the elementary 
forms, together with their technical description, and should 
therefore not be attempted too soon. When the right time for 
this work has come, the teacher may send his class to the 
board and dictate by line the things to be done. There are 
three possible ways of line- dictation : {a) The teacher may dic- 
tate the direction, length, and character of the lines, and expect 
the pupils to produce them, thus inventing a picture ; (6) He 
may propose a form and dictate substitutions of lines, as a 
curve for a straight lino. This is called invention by line 
substitution ; and (c) He may propose a form and dictate sub- 
stitutions of lines that differ not only in kind but also in length. 
This form of invention is called designing by line. 

(5) Elementary pupils soon grow tired of one form. In 
order to keep up the necessary interest in the form in ques- 
tion the teacher must resort to various devices, such as placing 
eggs, balls, birds, etc., upon, near, or into open forms. Suit- 
able stories addressed to memory or imagination are very 
effective devices. Teachers should, however, be careful not to 
make such devices too prominent. 

(6) It is believed that elementary pupils need no text-books 
in drawing before the fifth or sixth year ; and even then it is 
possible to get along without them. 

Illustrative Lessons. The following lessons are subjoined 
as illustrations of the method just described. They are de- 



DRAWING 339 

signed to illustrate the ^rit of the method rather than the 
historical details, which must be left to the individual teacher 
under his particular circumstances. 

The Sphere. Teacher. What do I hold in my hand, 
Grace ? G. A ball. T. The shape of a ball is called Sphere. 
Have you ever seen pictures of a sphere, Harry ? H. Yes, 
sir. T. I think I know what you would like to do. H. I 
would like to make pictures myself. T. Very well ; you will 
be able to do so by and by. Now look at the ball in my 
hand and fix its shape in your memory. (Turning to the 
board and looking at the ball) Watch me, children ; I will 
show you how to make a picture of this ball. (The teacher 
draws a circle and adds a few marks of expression.) What 
did I do, Mary ? M. You drew a ring and put little lines in 
it ; you made a picture of the ball in your hand. T. You 
may draw the same picture, Jane. (Jane steps to the board 
or turns to her paper and " draws from the picture," but looks 
at the ball to see if her picture resembles the ball.) T. Jane, 
this is the right way to hold your pencil or crayon (showing 
her). (Awkward positions of the body and improper ways of 
holding the pencil or crayon should be corrected, but individ- 
uality should not be crushed.) T. What have I done, Jacob? 
J. You have changed the picture into a tennis-ball picture by 
making a seam on it. T. The class may please try to do what 
I did. (They do so with a will.) T. Think of some object 
that looks like a ball. (The class name apples, oranges, onions, 
etc.) T. Watch me, please. (Looking at an apple, the teacher 
draws it with the stem on top.) Minnie. You looked at the 
apple in your hand and then made a picture of it. I saw how 
you fixed the stem. T. That is the right way to watch, Min- 
nie. I will draw a number of apple-pictures, and you may 
copy them at your seats. I will look at your work by and by, 
to see how well you can draw. (Drawing " from the object" 
should be gradually associated with drawing from pictures.) 



340 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

Two Cube-Paces. Teacher. What do I hold in my hand, 
Ralph ? R. A. box. T. How many faces of the box can you 
see if I hold it as I do ? R. Two ; the one toward me, and 
the top face. T. Which face do you think I should draw first, 
Albert ? ^. I think I would draw the one toward me first. 
(The teacher heeds the suggestion and draws the front face.) 
T. What shall I do now? ^. I do not know. T. Who can 
help me ? (No one sees the right thing to do.) Please watch 
me. (The teacher fixes the centre of vision, draws the neces- 
sary receding lines, and, choosing the distance backward, com- 
pletes the top face.) What have I done, Helen? H. You 
made a dot, drew lines from the top corners of the square to 
that point, and then drew another line parallel to the top line 
of the square, thus completing the top face. (Lessons on the 
square, rectangle, parallel lines, receding lines, and angles are 
presupposed in this lesson.) T. That is just what I have done. 
(Teachers must not expect perfect answers in these lessons.) 
The whole class may please do on your papers what I did on 
the board. You may also try to draw two faces of objects that 
you can see or remember. 

The Vertical Cylinder. T. What do I hold in my hand, 
Maude ? Jf. A tomato can. (The children laugh.) T. The 
shape of this can is called Cylinder. (The teacher writes the 
word and requires the children to copy it.) T. How much of 
the cylinder can you see from your seat if I hold it this way, 
Harold ? J7. I can see half way round the can and the whole 
top. T. What is the shape of the top face ? H. It is a circle. 
T. Can you see the bottom, Rufus ? i2. I can see only half 
way round the bottom. T. What is the shape of the bottom ? 
R. It is round like the top. T. What is the shape from 
top to bottom, Grace ? G. It is straight. T. Please watch 
me. What did I do, Robert ? R. You drew a circle for the 
top of the box, parallel lines for the sides, and a semicircle for 
the rim of the bottom. T. What changes have I made. An- 



DRAWING 341 

nie ? A. You put apples into the box and drew the picture. 
T. The class may draw the box with apples in it. (This may 
be done at the seats or at the board.) T. If your eye were 
somewhere in the line which I have just drawn, how much of 
the box could you see when I hold it this way ? (The nine 
possible positions should be studied and drawn, the teacher 
drawing first aud the children imitating. Various devices 
should be introduced to keep up interest. In subsequent les- 
sons the teacher should convert the cylinder into band-boxes, 
stove-pipes, caps, hats, barrels, etc., and thus lead the pupils 
to analyze familiar objects into type-forms. The children 
should also be encouraged to bring such objects as seem to 
embody the type-forms in question. Some of these should be 
drawn " from pictures" ; others " from the object." 

Dictation by Line. (The black-board is preferable to tablets 
in class dictations. The pupils should be expected to measure 
" by eye" and to draw " free-hand." The following dicta- 
tions are quoted from Professor Augsburg's excellent manual, 
" Elementary Drawing Simplified," which should be the com- 
panion of every elementary teacher. 

"(1) Draw a light vertical line 16'' * long. This is called 
the median line. (2) Through the upper extremity of the 
median line draw a horizontal line projecting 2" on each side. 
(3) 4" below this horizontal line draw another horizontal line 
like it. (4) 3" below the last horizontal line draw a hori- 
zontal line projecting 4" on each side of the median line. (5) 
Through the lower extremity of the median line draw a hori- 
zontal line like the last one. (6) Connect the extremities of 
the first aud second horizontal lines by vertical lines. (7) 
Connect the extremities of the second and third horizontal 
lines with oblique lines. (8) Connect the extremities of the 
third and last horizontal lines with vertical lines." 

* Oue indioe stands for feet, and two indices for inches. 



342 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

III. INTERMEDIATE DRAWING. 

The important features of intermediate drawing present 
themselves under the following heads : (1) The Subjects of 
Intermediate Drawing, and (2) The Method of Instruction. 

The Subjects of Intermediate Drawing. The following 
subjects of study belong to the intermediate, or rational, course 
of drawing. Two thirty-minute lessons a week for about four 
years should probably be devoted to this course : 

(1) Derivative forms obtained by division of the sphere, 
cube, cylinder, etc. In other words, the thread of the course 
should be the same as that of the elementary course, but such 
figures as can be obtained by one, two, or more divisions of the 
first forms must be studied instead of the elementary wholes. 
From the sphere, for example, we may thus derive the hemi- 
sphere, the quarter-sphere, etc. From the cube may be derived 
plinths, triangular prisms, oblong blocks, etc. (The methods- 
student should be required to make and name the various 
divisions.) 

(2) Conversions into less obvious forms, together with recog- 
nition of the type-forms in the objects which pupils meet. 

(3) Compositions of the derivative figures, the number of 
forms to be represented being determined by the number that 
may have been studied. 

(4) Invention by line and form. 

(5) The elements of map-drawing in connection with geog- 
raphy and history, and working drawings in connection with 
modelling and the elements of manual training. 

The Method of Instruction in Intermediate Drawing. 
(1) It is probably not advisable to dispense altogether with 
drawing " from the picture" in the intermediate course (see the 
first three Principles of Instruction), but drawing " from the 
object" and " problem" must become the rule. 

(2) In addition to such drawings as the teacher may see fit 



a 



DRAWING 343 

to use as "preparations," he must strive to supervise the minds 
of his pupils in such a way as to preserve the ideal method 
described in elementary drawing. 

(3) Inasmuch as objects to be drawn in this course should 
first be analyzed into type-forms, the teacher must study how 
to place objects in the best positions. In order to keep up 
proper interest in such tasks, there should be an interesting 
collection of materials on hand for class use, and the teacher 
should frequently draw interesting pictures as a stimulus to 
the pupil's ambition. 

(4) Suitable text-books, such as those of Professor Augs- 
burg, the Prang system, etc., should be used as supplements 
in intermediate drawing. 

Remark. The methods-students should be required to write 
out illustrative lessons for intermediate work. 

IV. HIGHER DRAWING. 

The important features of the higher, or special, course of 
drawing present themselves, as in the case of intermediate 
drawing, under two heads : (1) The Subjects of Higher Draw- 
ing, and (2) The Method of Instruction. 

The Subjects of Higher Drawing. The following sub- 
jects belong to the higher course of drawing. The course 
requires complex reasonings and is designed to fit students for 
special vocations. The tasks of this course must for various 
reasons be divided between high schools, normal schools, and 
technical schools : 

(1) Derivative forms obtained by composition of various 
forms. In other words, the logical thread of the other courses 
is to be preserved, but while the thread is a series of concen- 
trations on each of the elementary forms in order, the other 
elementary forms and derivatives should be correlated with 
the leading one. 

(2) The type-groups should be converted into the object- 



344 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

forms of nature, history, and imagination, and objects of 
nature, history, and imagination should be interpreted into 
the type-forms of which they may be embodiments. 

(3) Landscapes, historic groups, fictions, etc. 

(4) Invention by line, form, and idea. This is the sphere 
of industrial, architectural, and high-art drawing. 

(5) The various species of map-drawing should be made 
the subject of special study on the part of teachers, geogra- 
phers, surveyors, etc. 

(6) Teachers should understand the pedagogics of drawing. 
The Method of Instruction in Higher Drawing. The 

method of higher drawing is virtually the same as that of in- 
termediate drawing. The higher phases of the subject, the 
special purposes in view, and the individuality of the teacher 
must, of course, determine the necessary adjustments. The 
pedagogics of drawing is a problem of psychology and econ- 
omy, and must obviously be studied from those stand-points. 
Suitable text-books are the necessary supplements. 

V. THE IMPORTANCE OF DRAWING. 

To appreciate the importance of drawing, one must under- 
stand its efficiency as a means of culture and instruction. The 
following topics deserve special consideration : (1) The Cul- 
ture-Value of Drawing ; (2) The Instruction- Value of Draw- 
ing ; (3) The Practical Value of Drawing ; and (4) The 
Training of Teachers of Drawing. 

The Culture-Value of Drawing. Properly taught, draw- 
ing is the possible means of exercising the whole pupil (intel- 
lect, feeling, and will). (The methods-student should be re- 
quired to prove this statement.) The efficiency of drawing as 
a means in the culture of the eye, the taste, and the hand has 
long been known. (1) Drawing requires accurate and com- 
plete observation, and therefore improves the eye. (2) It re- 
quires the most accurate comparisons of distances, proportions, 



DRAWING 345 

directions, etc., and thus improves judgment. And inasmuch 
as perfect rather than imperfect objects are usually selected for 
study, drawing develops aesthetic judgment, or taste. This 
tendency is augmented by the connection into which drawing is 
brought with painting, etc. (3) Drawing employs the hand in 
connection witli the eye to express judgments, and thus not 
only promotes a most impoi'tant correlation, but also properly 
subordinates the hand and eye thus brought into correlation 
to the will. This correlation of the hand and eye, and their 
subordination to the will, is one of the most important ends in 
view in education. (See the chapter on the Nature of Educa- 
tion.) 

The Instruction Value of Drawing-. It is especially 
through the study of " form" as required in drawing that the 
mind discovers the expressive power of forms, and thus vir- 
tually acquires a key to the interpretation of many thoughts, 
emotions, and volitions, as embodied in Nature and Art. The 
interpretations of Nature and Art which thus become possible 
greatly increase, as appears from statistics, the appreciation 
of Nature and Art, and thus add materially to human happi- 
ness. This result is one of the right ideals in education. (See 
the Fifth General Principle of Education.) 

The Practical Value of Drawing-. The practical advan- 
tages of drawing are as follows : (1) It is the almost indispen- 
sable servant of text-books, furnishing pictures that surpass 
the text in power to express ideas, feelings, and purposes. (2) 
It is equally indispensable in oral instruction. Statistics show 
that, all other things being equal, the school-teacher who under- 
stands drawing surpasses his fellows in the power to interest 
his pupils, and thus in the power to instruct. (3) It is an 
indispensable equipment of artists, architects, surveyors, etc. 
(4) The habits and tastes which drawing develops fit pupils 
for better service in various vocations. " The Committee of 
Fifteen" says, " It prepares the future workman for a more 



346 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

useful and lucrative career, inasmuch as superior taste com- 
mands higher wages in the finishing of all goods." 

The Training' of Teachers of Drawing. If drawing is 
as important as just explained, it devolves on the public 
schools to offer adequate courses. Teachers, accordingly, need 
the following training : (1) Thorough training in drawing it- 
self. Such training, as elsewhere stated, is needed in the art 
as well as in the science of teaching drawing. Without such 
proficiency the teaching of drawing is likely to be a sorry fail- 
ure. (2) Thorough training in the principles and methods of 
teaching drawing is necessary. Since this topic is the burden 
of the present chapter, it is hoped that the matter may not 
require further discussion. 



MANUAL TRAINING 347 

CHAPTER XII. 

MANUAL TRAINING. 

The pedagogics of manual training is concerned with (1) 
The Nature of Manual Training, and (2) Instruction in Man- 
ual Training. 

A. THE NATURE OP MANUAL TRAINING. 

" Manual training, in the strict sense of the term, would 
mean simply the training of the hand ; but as currently used 
with reference to education, the words indicate such employ- 
ment of the hand as will at the same time train the eye to 
accuracy and the mind to attention. The scientific element, or 
the teaching of science pure and simple, is not necessarily in- 
volved in the expression. As, however, pure science can 
scarcely be taught without looking somewhat toward its appli- 
cations, so manual training cannot be made an effective edu- 
cational process except by constant reference to the broad 
foundation in the mathematical, physical, and natural sciences 
upon which it rests." Two subjects deserve our special atten- 
tion : (1) The Tasks of Manual Training, and (2) The His- 
tory of Manual Training. 

The Tasks of Manual Training. In manual training, as 
defined in the foregoing quotation, the pupil is taught how to 
use hand-tools in the interests of the hand, eye, and mind. 
This complex purpose implies (1) Instruction, and (2) Exer- 
cises. 

Manvxil- Training Studies. The manual-training pupil needs 
very definite knowledge about the following things: (1) The 
construction of hand- tools, (2) The uses to which these tools 
are to be put, (3) The care which must be taken of hand-tools, 



348 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

(4) The history of hand-tools, (5) The choice of materials 
(paper, wood, metals) according to their qualities, and (6) Me- 
chanical drawing, blue prints, etc. 

Manual- Training Exercises. Inasmuch as manual training 
aims at the correlation of the hand, the eye, and the mind, the 
pupil must put all instructions into practice. Exercises in 
construction must, therefore, be assigned. It is not enough 
that in these exercises the pupil is required to draw what is 
proposed for construction, and to measure off the proposed 
parts : he must also be required to justify his choice of tools 
and materials, and be held responsible for the condition of his 
tools. 

The History of Manual Training. " The principle of the 
manual-trainiug school exists in the kindergarten, and for 
that principle we are indebted directly to Froebel, and indi- 
rectly to Pestalozzi, Comenius, Rousseau, and Bacon. But it 
was reserved for Russia to solve the problem of tool-instruc- 
tion by the laboratory process, and make it the foundation of 
a great reform in education. The initiatory step was taken in 
1868 by M. Victor Delia- Vos, director of the Imperial Tech- 
nical School of Moscow." 

Manual Training in the United States. The Russian system 
of manual training soon found favor in America. Dr. John 
D. Runkle, president of the Massachusetts Institute of Tech- 
nology in 1876, was greatly pleased with the collection of 
hand-tools and samples of shop-work which he saw in Phila- 
delphia. He recommended the system, and it was adopted by 
the famous Boston institution. " The second manual-training 
school in this country was founded as a de})artment of Wash- 
ington University, St. Louis, Missouri, by Dr. C. M. Wood- 
ward. The first class was graduated in June, 1883." "Con- 
siderable progress in manual training has been made in the 
State agricultural colleges of the country." " The most pro- 
nounced success has been achieved at Purdue University, In- 



MANUAL TRAINING 349 

diana, under the directorship of Professor William F. M. Goss, 
who graduated from the School of Mechanic Arts of the Massa- 
chusetts Institute of Technology in 1879." The most compre- 
hensive manual-training school in the world is Professor Felix 
Adler's School in New York City. The Chicago Manual- 
Training School, the first independent educational institution 
of the kind in the world, was founded in 1883. Dr. Henry 
H. Belfield was chosen the first director. The school was well 
equipped from the beginning. It offers courses in " carpentry, 
wood-turning, pattern-making, iron chipping and filing, forge- 
work, brazing and soldering, the use of machine-shop tools," 
and in such other branches as seem to be necessary supple- 
ments. 

The State of Pennsylvania has welcomed manual training 
into many of her schools. The system was introduced in the 
Pennsylvania State College, experimentally, about twenty years 
ago. It was an outgrowth of the Russian idea, and the course 
is substantially that of the Chicago school. Manual training 
was made a part of the course of study in Girard College, 
Philadelphia, in 1882, and the experiment has proved a very 
great success. The public schools of Philadelphia offer manual 
training to all grades of pupils. " There are kindergartens 
(sub-primaries) for children from three to six years of age, and 
an industrial art department for all the students (of both sexes) 
of the grammar schools. In this latter department the course 
of training comprises ' drawing and design,' ' modelling,' 
' wood-carving,' ' carpentry and joinery,' and ' metal-work.' 
Special provisions have been made for boys of the Twelfth 
grade, or any higher grade, provided the boys are fourteen 
years of age." Dr. James MacAlister deserves the gratitude 
of the city for his part in the adoption of the system. 

Prospects. The prospects are that manual training will 
gradually find a place in all the States of our country and in 
all civilized nations. About twenty-five States have already 



350 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

introduced the system in certain schools. (1) Among the great 
cities that offer courses of manual training are Boston, New 
Haven, Albany, New York, Philadelphia, St. Paul, and 
Omaha. (2) The normal schools are almost unanimous in 
adopting the manual system. (3) Among the colleges and 
universities that offer extensive courses in manual training are 
Pennsylvania State College, Lehigh University, Cornell, and 
Atlanta. (4) Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, 
Toledo, and other cities offer excellent courses of manual 
training to girls. (5) Although manual training in the public 
schools of Europe can scarcely be called educational, since the 
pupils usually make articles for household use, the purpose 
therefore being purely industrial, and the mental culture re- 
ceived the mere accident of a mechanical pursuit, yet there 
are beginning to be approaches to the Russian idea. This is 
probably the tendency now in Denmark, France, Germany, 
Norway, Sweden, etc. In Naas, in Sweden, there is a semi- 
nary for the training of sloyd teachers. (6) The prospects of 
our rwal schools seem to be brightening. " It is sometimes 
said that the boys and girls in the country schools have less 
need of this kind of instruction than those of town or city 
schools, for the reason that their daily employments about the 
farm or in the household give them a readiness in perform- 
ing common tasks which the less favored city boy seldom 
acquires ; but while there is truth in this observation, it is also 
true that the range of such employments is comparatively lim- 
ited, and that they are not generally so conducted as to culti- 
vate habits of precision and carefulness in the performance of 
them. Systematic manual training would give to such boys 
and girls a variety of exercises and of skills which only the 
favored few can otherwise acquire. We believe that the nat- 
ural aptitude for such exercises, fostered as it is by their cir- 
cumstances, would produce even better practical results there 
than in schools of the other kind. The case of Sweden fur- 



MANUAL TRAINING 351 

nishes most interesting evidence of the ease and success with 
which such a system can be introduced into rm-al schools when 
it is once undertaken, and the manifold advantages resulting 
from it. But whatever may be the fact upon this point, it 
requires but a moment's reflection to see that the most serious 
obstacle to the introduction of such a system throughout the 
entire system of schools is, at present, the lack of a sufficient 
number of properly trained teachers." This obstacle can be 
removed. " The experience of Sweden and of France show 
conclusively that a body of teachers can be very rapidly 
formed." " In Sweden it is found that an ordinary teacher, 
by spending six weeks in one year and five weeks in the fol- 
lowing year in a special course of manual training, can acquire 
all that is necessary for teaching its elements successfully." 
It is earnestly recommended (1) " That the law require every 
district, in its subsequent erection of buildings for school pur- 
poses, to make suitable provisions for a room or rooms to be 
used for the purposes of manual training" ; and (2) " That 
provision be made or authorized for the grouping of rural 
schools, for purposes of manual training, in such a way that 
either the scholars from schools included in each group may 
go in sections from each school to some one conveniently lo- 
cated, there to receive instruction in manual training, or that 
a special instructor in manual training may be appointed, 
whose time shall be assigned to each school in turn." 

B. INSTRUCTION IN MANUAL TRAINING. 
The important features of instruction in manual training 
may be conveniently studied under the following heads : (1) 
The Courses of Manual Training ; (2) The Methods of In- 
struction ; and (3) The Importance of Manual Training. 



352 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

I. THE COURSES OF MANUAL TRAINING. 

The ends in view and the pupil's possibilities suggest three 
courses of manual training: (1) The Elementary (Imitative) 
Course ; (2) The Intermediate (Eational) Course ; and (3) The 
Higher (Special) Course. (See Principles of " Knowledge" 
and " Instruction.") 

The Elementary Course. The studies and exercises of 
all the courses must be selected as means to ends. 

Ends. The child learns to do a hundred things by doing 
them long before it can understand the theory of the things. 
It is economy in education to give all such lessons, not only 
to gain so much time, but esjjecially also to develop those fun- 
damental ideas and judgments upon which to build subsequent 
training for the hand, eye, and mind. These are the ends, 
therefore, of the elementary course. 

Elementary Studies and Exercises. In pursuit of the ends 
in view, the first six years of the child's school-life may profit- 
ably be devoted to the following course of studies and exer- 
cises in manual training: (1) Exercises in kindergarten con- 
structions and inventions. Beginners in school may lay 
splints, build with blocks, plait, fold, weave, and model. 
Many of these exercises can be combined as busy work with 
other lessons. (2) Exercises in writing and drawing, as indi- 
cated in the elementary courses (see pages 137, 335). There 
should also be such elementary exercises in mechanical draw- 
ing as may prepare the pujnl for exercises with hand-tools. 
(3) Exercises in the uses and care of simple hand-tools, such 
as the jack-knife, hammer, gimlet, scissors, etc. In these ex- 
ercises card-board and wood can be worked into various easy 
structures. The purpose of training the mind in correlation 
with the hand and eye should always be kept in mind. The 
necessary place for work, and the appropriate materials and 
tools, are not hard to supply. 



MANUAL TRAINING 353 

The Intermediate Course. Just as the ends of this course 
are different from those of the elementary course, so the studies 
and exercises of the course must be. 

Ends. The purposes of the intermediate course in manual 
training are as follows : (1) To develop such manual skill as 
should be common to the great mass of our population ; (2) 
To add to such skill so much theory as may be necessary to 
make tool-practice rational as well as mechanical ; and (3) To 
make the course a supplementary means in the education of the 
hand, eye, and mind. It should be possible to attain these 
ends between the ages of twelve and sixteen, since the great 
majority of pupils leave school at about sixteen years of 
age. 

Intermediate Studies and Exercises. In pursuit of the ends 
in view, the following intermediate course of training is sug- 
gested : (1) Drawing as proposed in the chapter on that sub- 
ject (see pages 342, 343). (2) Paper sloyds and wood sloyds 
of the geometrical forms, the construction to be preceded by 
working drawings made by the pupil, and by the teacher's 
written or printed directions as to the tools to be used and the 
proper care ; (3) Exercises and studies in wood-carving, mod- 
elling, carpentry and joinery, etc., according to the capacity 
and time of the pupil. These tasks must be very carefully 
graded. In carpentry and joinery, special attention should be 
paid to working-drawings and judgment in the use of tools. 
There should be simple exercises in hammering, chiselling, 
squaring, halving, dovetailing, mortise and tenon work, 
boring, planing, sawing, grooving, framing, gauging, bevel- 
ling, dowelling, champfering, mitreing, wedging, sandpapering, 
filing, etc. Theory should be combined with practice in such 
proportion as may seem best for the particular pupil in ques- 
tion. Two or three hours a week should be given to these 
tasks. 

Higher Courses in Manual Training. The special ends 

23 



354 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

in view in higher courses of manual training will, of course, 
determine various distinct studies and exercises. 

Ends. The following distinct purposes may be recognized 
in higher courses of manual training : (1) To develop such 
superior skill as may be desirable in our high-school pupils, 
provisions for both sexes being made ; (2) To prepare pupils 
for higher institutions just as they are prepared in other 
studies ; (3) To prepare teachers to teach manual training 
and to make such apparatus as they may need in teaching 
other branches ; and (4) To equip men and women for special 
vocations in the industrial world. 

Higher Studies and Exercises. (1) In high schools the les- 
sons in manual training will differ from the intermediate 
course chiefly in their greater complexity, but also in the cor- 
relation of various tasks with lessons in physics and mathe- 
matics. (2) The manual-training tasks of preparatory schools 
must be determined, as in case of other studies, by reference to 
the curriculum of the higher institution for which preparation 
is intended. (3) Normal schools should offer courses corre- 
sponding to the work which ought to be expected of them in 
the public schools, etc. In the interests of physiology, anatomy, 
psychology, physics, color-work, etc., there should be courses 
in chart-making, clay-modelling, photography, mechanical 
drawing, etc. The greatest pains should be taken to make 
the teacher's course an effective instrument in his own educa- 
tion, and to fit him or her to teach manual training effectively. 
(4) For outline of courses in higher institutions the reader is 
respectfully referred to the catalogues of Pennsylvania State 
College, Cornell University, Lehigh University, and the Mas- 
sachusetts Institute of Technology. 

II. METHODS OF INSTRUCTION IN MANUAL TRAINING. 

The features that are of special interest at this point may 
conveniently be treated under the following heads : (1) Mate- 



MANUAL TRAINING 355 

rial Equipments ; (2) Preparation of Lessons ; and (3) Recita- 
tion of Lessons. 

Material Equipments. The introduction of manual train- 
ing into our schools requires (1) a room suitably equipped 
with work -benches, etc., (2) the tools adapted to the purposes 
in hand, and (3) a supply of card-board, wood, etc. 

The Manual- Training Room. In country districts economy 
requires that a shop be fitted up in such a way as to accommo- 
date pupils of all ages. In towns and cities a special labora- 
tory should be provided for the schools of each grade, the 
pupils of such schools coming for their lessons at set times, 
and to a teacher in charge of such shops. Normal schools, 
colleges, etc., require a series of rooms for courses in carpentry, 
turnery, moulding, etc., the ends in view determining the 
special provisions. 

Manual-Training Tools. In district schools the common 
hand-tools in carpentry, joinery, etc., must suffice. Inas- 
much as the same shop can be made to suffice for the various 
schools of one grade, towns and cities can affijrd to purchase 
a greater variety of tools. The special purposes of manual 
training in normal schools and special schools must determine 
the variety of tools to be used. 

Working Materials. All manual-training laboratories must, 
of course, be supplied with suitable paper for drawings, blue 
prints, sloyds, etc. ; with soft, medium, and hard wood, adapted 
to the purposes in hand; and with such other materials as 
teachers may require. 

Preparation of Manual-Training Lessons. Manual- 
training lessons require preparation on the part of teachers 
and pupils. 

The Teacher's Preparation. (1) The working materials 
must be selected and put into available shapes. The teacher 
should also be perfectly familiar with the natural history, the 
physical qualities, and industrial values of the materials to be 



356 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

used in all lessons. (2) The ideal teacher of manual training 
inspects his equipments daily, studies the powers of the tools 
with which he must deal, and keeps every instrument in 
working condition. (3) Every lesson should have a definite 
end in view. The teacher must ascertain this end in the 
present progress of the pupil, and plan such exercises as shall 
serve as means to the end in view. The successive recitations 
must hang well together, and constitute a perfect series from 
the simple to the complex. To this end the lesson-plan must 
so combine tools in various constructions as to develop the 
highest manual skill in connection with the best training for 
the eye and mind. (See Goss.) 

The Pupil's Preparation. (1) It is not to be expected of 
elementary pupils that they prepare assigned lessons, since 
they need constant supervision. (2) Pupils of grammar 
schools, high schools, and special schools must be required to 
do various things between recitations. Normal-school stu- 
dents, for example, should be required to prepare working- 
drawings, blue-prints, etc., according to assigned problems, 
and to finish charts for various pedagogical uses, paper- 
sloyds, etc. The time and labor thus demanded of pupils 
should not be too great, and proper differences should be ob- 
served in masculine and feminine assignments. 

Recitation of Manual-Training Lessons. The plan of 
manual-training recitations is determined by the ends in view, 
i.e., by the tasks of the various grades. 

Elementary Recitation. Since the tasks of the elementary 
grade are cliiefly those of the kindergarten, drawing, form- 
study, etc., the lessons must, of course, be imitative in essence. 
In other words, the teacher illustrates and the pupils imitate. 

Intermediate Lessons. (1) With intermediate pupils theory 
must be combined with imitation. In other words, the teacher 
must illustrate the use and care of the tools to be used, test 
the pupils' knowledge of working materials, etc., point out 



MANUAL TRAINING 357 

sources of inforraatiou, impart useful and interesting general 
instruction, discipline the pupils' judgment, correct false ideas, 
supervise exercises, etc. The best possible order should be 
preserved throughout these recitations. (2) Lessons to be 
prepared should be definitely assigned, necessary suggestions 
offered, etc. (3) In the interests of economy and discipline a 
supply-account with pupils must be opened. (4) An effective 
system of inspecting work done is indispensable. The teacher 
must make sure that all work done by pupils in recitation 
hours and between recitations is the pupils' own work. All 
passing marks must be recorded in the pupil's favor. The 
pupil must be made to recognize that absolute honesty is the 
indispensable test of superior worth in manual-training attain- 
ments. 

III. THE IMPORTANCE OF MANUAL TRAINING. 

The interests of pedagogics require at least a brief notice 
of the importance of manual training. Our reflections may 
be summed up under the following heads : (1) Culture, (2) 
Instruction, (3) Utility, and (4) The Training of Teachers. 

The Culture-Value of Manual Training. The correla- 
tion of the hand, eye, and mind, as required in educational 
manual training;, makes it one of the most effective instru- 
ments in modern education. This correlation itself, as those 
who understand the subject teach us, is one of the fundamen- 
tal conditions of mental growth. The student of pedagogics 
will find it easy to show that the whole pupil (intellect, feel- 
ing, will, and body) is brought into effective service in the 
various manual training lessons. 

The Instruction- Value of Manual Training. As a sup- 
plement of physics, pedagogics, and other studies, manual 
training offers illustrations, confirms theories, and stimulates 
scientific observations. The knowledge thus acquired, together 
with its inspiration, is its own high reward. 



358 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

The Utility of Manual Training. From an industrial 
stand-point manual training needs no apology. The history 
of its introduction and progress is its sufficient defence. 

The Training of Teachers of Manual Training. The 
importance of manual training and its rapid introduction into 
our schools call for trained teachers, and especially for teach- 
ers trained in the pedagogics of the subject. (See Ham's 
" Manual Training," " Bench Work in Wood," by Goss, and 
"Industrial Education," 1887-89, Pennsylvania Commis- 
sion. 



PHYSIOLOGY 359 

CHAPTER XIII. 

PHYSIOLOGY. 

The pedagogics of physiology is concerned with two topics : 
(1) The Nature of Physiology, and (2) Instruction in Phy- 
siology. 

A. THE NATURE OF PHYSIOLOGY. 

Three general topics deserve our present attention : (1) The 
Subject of Physiology ; (2) The Psychology of Physiology ; 
and (3) The History of Physiology. 

The Subject of Physiology. In the widest application 
of the term physiology denotes the study of the organs, func- 
tions, and health of the human body. 

Organs of the Body, The body is a composite structure, 
every part of which has some special office to perform. It is 
in this sense of the term that we speak of the stomach, the 
liver, the teeth, etc., as the organs of the body. In a very 
general way the organs of the body may be classified as bones, 
muscles, and nerves. 

Functions of the Body. The work for which an organ of 
the body is designed is termed its function. It is in this sense 
that we speak of mastication, salivation, deglutition, digestion, 
assimilation, etc. In a very general way the functions of the 
body may be classified as locomotion, conservation, and sen- 
sation. 

Health of the Body. When all the organs of the body per- 
form their offices effectively, so that life continues in perfec- 
tion, the body is said to be healthy. The condition, as statis- 
tics show, depends especially upon heredity, environment, 
food, sleep, exercise, clothing, and mental life. The fact that 
physical health has so much to do with our general success 



360 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

makes the preservation of health and its improvement the 
first concern of education. 

The Psychology of Physiology. The learner becomes 
acquainted with the facts of the body by obsei'vation, he dis- 
covers the laws of his physical life by induction, and makes 
these his rules of conduct by deduction. 

The History of Physiology. The study of physiology 
began in the earliest ages of the world, but it was not until 
modern times that physiology became a branch of study in 
our public schools. Its recent introduction into all the grades 
of our schools is a great step in advance. The masses are 
thus put into possession of knowledge that in the most prac- 
tical sense is power indeed. The world at large is coming to 
see the importance of such knowledge, and teachers are re- 
quired to give the same evidence of physiological training 
as of training in other branches. 

B. INSTRUCTION IN PHYSIOLOGY. 

Teachers of physiology should understand the following 
features of the work : (1) The Courses of Instruction ; (2) 
The Methods of Instruction; and (3) The Importance of 
Physiology. 

Courses of Physiology. The demands of culture and the 
needs of life require three courses in physiology. The inter- 
ests of general education require a common-school course in 
physiology ; the needs of teachers and psychologists must be 
supplied in special courses ; the medical profession needs as 
extensive a course as can be fouud. 

Co7nmon-School Pliysiology. (1) The common-school course 
in physiology should begin in the pupil's earliest years and 
continue through all grades. The first years should be de- 
voted to such facts as children ought to know. The subjects 
to be taught must be left to the teacher's judgment, though 
elementary text-books should give direction to the teacher's 



PHYSIOLOGY 361 

choice of subjects. The obvious laws of the body, as well as 
the facts, should be studied in grammar grades. The high 
school should begin to inquire into complex features of physi- 
cal life. 

(2) The lessons of lower grades should be made as concrete 
and attractive as possible. Pictures, drawings, charts, etc., 
will often be found very helpful, but books are out of place 
in elementary physiology. Practical experiments should be 
introduced in grammar grades, and a brief text-book should 
be made the guiding thread of the lessons. Lessons should 
be assigned, prepared, and recited. Two or three lessons of 
twenty minutes each week will suffice. The pupil should be 
led from facts to principles, and from principles to rules of 
life. The study of physiology in high schools should be 
made as thoroughly scientific as possible. In addition to the 
regular work which is to be done in text-books, special 
problems should be assigned to the pupils, the pupils making 
original observations and arriving at independent conclusions. 
Special lessons on stimulants, narcotics, poisons, and emer- 
gencies are of the greatest importance. 

Higher Physiology. (1) The teacher needs an extensive and 
accurate training in physiology. The smatterer will teach 
untruths and harm the cause of health. In addition to a 
complete course in physiology, a thorough training in the 
methods of teaching it is indispensable, (2) The study of 
some phases of psychology is impossible apart from physi- 
ology. The psychologist needs a special training in the phy- 
siology of the nervous system. (3) It is not within our 
scope to go into details with regard to the physiology of the 
medical profession. 

III. IMPORTANCE OF PHYSIOLOGY. 

The merits of physiology as a means in education are most 
conveniently summed up under the following heads : (1) The 



362 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

Culture- Value of Physiology ; (2) The Instruction- Value of 
Physiology ; and (3) The Life- Value of Physiology. 

The Culture-Value of Physiology. The teacher who 
understands his business can make physiology the means of 
superior culture. The study of physiology is an ideal oppor- 
tunity in the development of right habits of observation, in- 
duction, and deduction. To be of any value all the observa- 
tions must be accurate, and many conclusions at which the 
pupil arrives by induction, as well as the life-rules at which 
he arrives by deduction, must undergo continual correction. 
Since the concrete welfare of the pupil is constantly at stake 
in these necessities, they tend to develop not only the intellect 
but also the heart and will. 

The Instruction- Value of Physiology. As a consequence 
of the close relation between the body and the mind, the 
knowledge of the body is often a preparation toward a better 
understanding of the mind. Many of the mysteries of life 
so dreadful to the uninitiated disappear in the light of physi- 
ology. 

The Life- Value of Physiology. The study of physiology 
tends to save life, to promote health and happiness, to improve 
mental and physical labor, and to decrease immorality. 



PHYSICAL CULTURE 363 

CHAPTER XIV. 

PHYSICAL CULTURE. 

The pedagogics of physical culture has to do with two gen- 
eral problems : (1) The Nature of Physical Culture, and (2) 
Instruction in Physical Culture. 

A. THE NATURE OP PHYSICAL CULTURE. 

An exhaustive inquiry into the nature of physical develop- 
ment is impossible at this point. Two topics, however, de- 
serve our attention : (1) The Necessity of Physical Culture, 
and (2) The History of Physical Culture. 

The Necessity of Physical Culture. The instinctive 
prompting to play disappears when the body matures ; its 
mission has then been performed. It must, however, not be 
inferred that when the body has arrived at its maturity phy- 
sical activity is no longer necessary. In this matter, as in 
others, the guardianship of the body is merely transferred 
from instinct to reason. Inquiry into the process of physical 
life confirms this theory. The process of physical life consists 
of two complementary processes commonly denoted by the 
terms assimilation and elimination, and this complementary 
relation must be maintained in maturity as well as in the 
stages of development. The agencies in the maintenance of 
this complementary relation are nutrition and repair, muscu- 
lar activity, aud neurosis. The remarkable thing in this 
complex agency is the fact that muscular activity is the indis- 
pensable condition of nutrition and repair and of normal 
neurosis. (See Physiology.) A system of muscular exercises 
must, accordingly, be devised for the development and health 
of the body. 



364 PEINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

The Relation of the Body and Mind, The mind, as psycho- 
physics teaches, is in the closest sympathy with the body. 
Abnormal neurosis is always a mental misfortune. The 
mental life of a person whose physical health is perfect is 
generally also normal, and much of a man's success can often 
be traced directly to a fine physical system. Accordingly, the 
importance of physical culture is to be measured not only by 
its physical, but also by its intellectual and moral conse- 
quences. 

The History of Physical Culture. Systematic physical 
culture probably attained its highest possibilities in ancient 
times. The preservation of nations then depended very much 
upon physical prowess in personal combat, as in Greece and 
Rome. Then, too, Greece "paid so much attention to pure 
gymnastics because the beautiful was worshipped as the highest 
manifestation of the divine." The ascetic misconception of 
the relation of the body and mind led the Middle Ages to 
despise the body and ignore its just claims. It was not until 
Locke's time that educators began to understand the true 
relation of the body and mind. The Philanthropinists laid 
great stress on physical culture. The "new" education, ac- 
cepting the teachings of Christ and the conclusions of physio- 
logical psychology, has for some years squarely faced the 
problem of physical culture in our schools. The recent intro- 
duction of physiology into the schools, and the provisions 
made by normal schools and special schools for the training 
of teachers, will do much toward the intelligent general intro- 
duction of physical culture. The old prejudice against the 
body is fast disappearing from the minds of the general pub- 
lic, as may be seen in the increased interest of all classes in 
gymnasiums and athletics. The time is fast approaching 
when we shall require all teachers to give as much evidence 
of their fitness to teach physical culture as reading and arith- 
metic. It is to be hoped, however, that in the almost violent 



PHYSICAL CULTURE 365 

reaction in favor of the body the American people may not 
prostitute physical culture to the interests of brute force and 
acrobatic shoAV. 

B, INSTRUCTION IN PHYSICAL CULTURE. 

In order to do effective work in physical culture the teacher 
must understand, (1) Classification of Exercises ; (2) Princi- 
ples of Physical Culture ; (3) Courses of Exercises ; (4) 
Methods of Instruction ; (5) The Adoption of a System ; and 
(6) The Importance of Physical Culture. 

Classification of Physical Exercises. The most conve- 
nient and therefore the most appropriate classification of phy- 
sical exercises is the common division into (1) Lower-Limb 
Movements ; (2) Upper- Limb Movements ; and (3) Trunk 
Movements. Some exercises belong purely to only one of 
these classes, others are a combination of two classes, while 
many of the best exercises belong partly to all classes. 

Lower-Limh Movements. Among the common exercises for 
the lower limbs are walking, running, jumping, and leaping. 
Swimming, bicycling, base-ball, and foot-ball involve espe- 
cially the lower limbs, but belong at the same time to the 
other classes. 

Upper-Limb Movements. Among the common exercises for 
the arms are swinging, lifting, and throwing. Indian clubs 
or dumb-bells may be added to the swinging movements. 
Exercises with poles, bars, chest-weights, etc., as well as 
climbing and carrying, are complex forms of liftiug. Balls, 
quoits, nine-pins, etc., are convenient in throwing. 

Trunk 3fovements. Among the common exercises for the 
trunk are swimming, riding, and boxing. Since these move- 
ments are generally impossible, substitutions must be found. 
The most convenient substitutes are breathing exercises, imi- 
tations of rowing, systematic bendings of the body, and imi- 
tation boxing. These exercises are commonly combined with 



366 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

others meant more especially for the upper and lower limbs 
and for the neck. 

Principles of Physical Culture. In j^hysical culture, as 
in other studies, the courses of exercises and the methods of 
work should be selected as means to ends. A knowledge of 
the following principles is essential to intelligent selection in 
these matters. 

1. The right ideal in physical culture is to develop the body 
into the best instrument of life. 

In the statement of this principle the term life is to be taken 
in its largest sense, the sense in which it was used in the Fifth 
General Principle of Education (page 39). To be the best 
instrument of life in the largest sense, the body must have 
health, strength, skill, and grace. (1) Health is the condition 
of normal mental life, as set forth in the first part of this chap- 
ter. (2) Strength is the indispensable equipment of labor and 
endurance. (3) Skill, the ability to do a thing quickly and 
well, is an economic advantage without which no one can suc- 
cessfully compete in the arts of life. (4) Grace, it is true, is 
not a physical necessity. It is, however, a great social advan- 
tage, and as such often has practical and moral consequences. 
Moreover, there is conscious happiness in the possession of a 
fine body, especially when this possession is combined with 
the best refinements. 

In order that health, strength, skill, and grace may prove a 
blessing the body must be made the servant of intelligence, 
refinement, and highest purposes. Apart from right habits 
of subordination, physical advantages often prove to be a 
curse. 

2. It is through corresponding exercises in muscular contrac- 
tions and expansions that all desii'able physical vii'tues must be 
developed. 

Since contraction and expansion are the only possibilities of 
muscular activity, all the possibilities of physical culture must 



PHYSICAL CULTUEE 367 

lie along these lines. It is through obedience to the laws of 
habit that the possibilities of physical culture must be realized. 
In other words, the exercises of any system of physical cul- 
ture should be exercises in those things which are to become 
the virtues of the body. Accordingly, health must be devel- 
oped through normal use of the organs in question, strength 
can be developed only by a long course of strong contractions 
and expansions, skill results from practice in rapid move- 
ments, and grace is the reward of cultivated self-possession 
in muscular movements. The will must be required to sub- 
ordinate all exercises to the dictates of intelligence and re- 
finement. 

(3) The natural stages of development must he respected in 
physical culture. 

Experiment seems to show that the natural series of play- 
interests is a manifestation of the trend of the needs of the 
maturing body. It has also been proved that the series of the 
pupil's possibilities coincides with the series of his interests 
and needs. Thus we learn that in order to adapt exercises to 
individual pupils the teacher must study individual interests. 
Inasmuch as there is a general similarity of individual interests, 
a true system of exercises can be founded upon the general 
trend of play-interests. The earlier physical movements are 
generally imitative, the later ones rational and original. A 
thread of concentrations, each emphasis being the centre of cor- 
relations, seems to run through both the imitative and the 
rational series of the physical activities of the body. In other 
words, Nature seems to have special epochs of development 
for the various parts of the body, but will not, while laying 
stress on any particular part, neglect the other parts of the 
body. The parts to which Natm'e attends successively are 
those which seem to fall behind in the race of symmetrical 
development. This suggestion of Nature must ever, there- 
fore, be the teacher's guide in dealing with individual pupils. 



368 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

Courses of Exercises. The following outline is based 
upon the principles of physical culture, and is designed to be 
a guide to teachers : 

Courses of Exercises. 

I. Imitation Course. 

1. Contractions and expansions of leg muscles. 

(1) Normal. 

(2) Strong. 

(3) Quick. 

(4) Graceful. 

2. Contractions and expansions of arm muscles. 

Same as above. 

3. Contractions and expansions of body muscles. 

Same as above. 

II. Rational Course. 

1. Complex contractions of muscles. 

2. The physiology of exercises. 

III. Professional Course. 

1 . Superior attainments in muscular culture. 

2. The theory of physical culture. 

3. The pedagogics of physical culture. * 

The Method of Instruction. In ideal instruction the 
recitation presupposes preparation. These two topics deserve 
our attention. (See Principles.) 

Preparation in Physical Culture. (1) The possibilities for 
good or evil are so great in physical exercises that the teacher 
must make the very best preparations. He should choose 
exercises as means to definite ends in the system which he 
may have adopted. The ability to illustrate the exercises to be 
assigned is indispensable in the imitative course. The physi- 

* The first course is suitable for lower grades, the second for high schools, 
and the third for normal and special schools. 



PHYSICAL CULTURE 369 

ology of the proposed exercises should be thoroughly mastered 
before recitation. The plan of the recitation, its steps and 
details, should be mastered in the most definite sense. (2) In 
the imitative course the pupil's preparations must consist 
mainly of repetitions of exercises with which the pupil has 
become familiar. In the rational course the pupil must also 
be required to study regularly assigned lessons on the physi- 
ology of exercises already practised or of those to be used in 
the next recitation. In the professional course the require- 
ments of the rational course must be variously supplemented 
with special reference to the pedagogics of the subject. 

The Recitation in Physical Culture. (1) In the imitative 
course the recitation must consist of observation and imita- 
tion. In other words, the teacher must illustrate the move- 
ments to be taught ; the pupil must observe and imitate. The 
movements should be repeated until the ends in view have 
been attained, but the pupil's strength and patience must never 
be taxed too severely. (2) In the rational course the reci- 
tation may consist partly of theory and partly of practice, or 
separate periods may be devoted to each. The recitation in 
theory will resemble a recitation in physiology. The recita- 
tion in movements must consist of commands and obedience. 
In other words, the teacher states what is to be done, illus- 
trates complex requirements, commands successive movements 
of strength, rapidity, and grace, while the pupils promptly 
obey every order to the best of their ability. Prompt obe- 
dience is of utmost importance as a means in subordinating 
the body to the mind and as a training in concerted moral 
actions. (3) The recitation plans of the professional course in 
physical culture are practically the same as those of the inter- 
mediate course. 

Adoption of a System. In our times the teacher has 
many alternatives from which to select a system of exercises 
for a school. Among the best systems of physical culture are 

24 



370 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

the Swedish, the military, and the Preece systems. Probably 
the Swedish and the military systems should be combined in 
higher courses to produce the best results. The best system 
for public schools is the Preece system; it aims at proper 
physical habits and is decidedly moral and aesthetic. The 
most gratifying results have been obtained in many cities. 
The Preece manual for teachers, published by C. W. Bardeen, 
Syracuse, New York, is very complete, and deserves a place 
in every teacher's library. 

The Importance of Physical Culture. Systematic phy- 
sical culture is not absolutely necessary in country districts 
where pupils find many opportunities outside of school hours 
to develop their bodies, and yet there are reasons why such 
a system as the Preece or the Swedish should be introduced 
into every rural school. Improper habits of walking, stand- 
ing, sitting, breathing, etc., are alarmingly common even in 
the rural schools. In towns and cities systematic physical 
culture seems indispensable. Opportunities for playing, etc., 
are harder to find, school grounds are often quite too small, 
and the out-door hours too few. In the interests of body, 
mind, and morals, city schools and town schools should adopt 
some system of physical culture. (See Necessity of Physical 
Culture.) 



SINGING 371 



CHAPTER XV. 

SINGING. 

The problems with which the pedagogics of singing is con- 
cerned are as follows : (1) The Nature of Singing, and (2) 
Instruction in Singing. 

A. THE NATURE OF SINGING. 

The necessary knowledge of the subject to be taught is the 
first concern of the ideal teacher. It is assumed that in the 
case of singing the teacher should understand the following 
phases of the subject : (1) The Production of Tones ; (2) The 
Representation of Tones ; (3) Reading ; and (4) The History 
of Singing. 

The Production of Tones. In singing we have to do 
with sounds just as in painting we have to do with colors. 
These sounds of the voice are termed Tones. The tones in 
question are the results of physical vibration, and they differ 
in the number of necessary vibrations, in extent of time, in 
quality of voice, in stress of voice, etc. The production of 
tones is therefore concerned with (1) Pitch, (2) Time, (3) 
Quality, (4) Force, etc. 

Pitch. The distinction of higher and lower tones is termed 
Pitch. In the production of tones of definite pitch, the mind 
is not conscious of the number of necessary vibrations of the 
vocal chords, but only of such vocal coordination as will re- 
sult in the desired pitch. This coordination consists of differ- 
ence in the tension of the vocal chords, and depends for much 
of its success on faithful practice. For fuller explanation the 
reader is referred to Natural Philosophy. 



372 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

Time. The prolongation of a tone is termed its Time. 
Thus, we speak of long and short tones, of slow and quick 
time. Two things are necessary in the production of tones of 
definite length, namely, control of the vocal chords and 
judgment in the measure of the tones in question. As in the 
case of pitch, practice tends to make perfect. 

Quality. The differences of voice denoted by the words 
sweet, mellow, brilliant, etc., are termed Quality, or Tim- 
bre. Some of these qualities are voluntary possibilities; 
others are individual differences over which the persons 
in question have almost no power. Systematic voice-cult- 
ure will, however, do much to improve the qualities of any 
voice. 

Force. The differences of stress denoted by the words soft, 
medium, loud, etc., are termed Force. The variations in 
question are voluntary possibilities limited only by the physical 
powers of the singer. 

Rhythm. In a metrical succession of tones the system of 
accent and time is termed Rhythm. The word "time" is 
often synonymous with " rhythm." Thus, when we speak of 
" three-fourths" time we mean a succession of tones in which 
three "quarter" notes (or equivalents) form the measures 
regularly with one accent to each measure and in regular 
position. It thus follows that rhythm is a derivative of time 
and force. 

Melody. Rhythmical succession of single tones is termed 
Melody. The word " tune" is a popular substitute, as in the 
sentence, " He cannot keep a tune." 

Harmony. Simultaneous tones of such difference in pitch 
as satisfies the aesthetic sense are said to be Harmonious. 
One pulse of such harmony is termed a Chord. The syste- 
matic construction of successive chords is termed Composition. 
The fundamental pitch in melody and composition is termed 
the Key. Systematic progress from the key is termed the 



SINGING 373 

Scale. Change of key in melody and composition is termed 
Transposition. * 

The Representation of Tones. In singing as a species 
of language there are three logical steps : (1) The production 
of tones, the visible representation of tones, and the produc- 
tion of tones thus represented to the eye. It is with the 
second task that we have to do at this point. 

Necessity. The necessity of visible representation of tones 
appears from two considerations : (1) Apart from such repre- 
sentation song would generally perish with its first produc- 
tion, and (2) The visible representation of tones is an indis- 
pensable means in the pupil's education. 

Method. All methods of representing tones to the eye 
have their basis in psychophysics, and the historic develop- 
ment of such methods is subject to the accidents of invention. 
In their fuller aspects these considerations belong to the his- 
tory of music. It is with the conventional method of repre- 
sentation that we are concerned at this point. (1) Difference 
in " pitch" is generally represented to the eye by means of 
differences in distance from a base line. On the conventional 
" staff" the pitch in question is denoted by the letters c, c?, e, 
etc., or by the figures 1, 2, 3, etc., or by the names do, re, mi, 
etc., or by the shapes of the notes employed. " Melody" and 
its development in " composition" are generally represented 
by progress from left to right on the staff, probably in imita- 
tion of our modes of " writing." The " key" of a melody or 
composition is generally denoted by means of so-called " flats 
and sharps." The " scale" consists of a natural " octave" of 
tones and its repetition. Letters, names, etc., are employed in 

* Those features of tone-production which may be summed up under 
the head of "pronunciation," although of the highest importance to ar- 
tistic singing, constitute the special domain of "Voice Culture," whose 
purpose it is to develop such vocal technique as may completely express 
the mental states of the singer. 



374 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

its description. (2) Difference in " time" is generally repre- 
sented to the eye by means of differences in the form of the 
" notes." (3) Differences in " quality" and " force" are gener- 
ally represented to the eye by means of technical terms or 
equivalent signs, as co7i expressione, pianissimo, p, f, etc. (4) 
" Rhythm" is represented to the eye by means of the divi- 
sion of the " staff" into " measures" composed somewhat reg- 
ularly of longer and shorter tones, the " theme" of a song 
determining whether the measures are to be iambs, trochees, 
anapests, dactyls, or some other arrangement. Difference in 
rhythmic speed is indicated on the staff by means of technical 
'marks, as in the case of " quality" and " force." Artistic pro- 
nunciation is supervised by similar means. 

Reading. In its entirety " singing from notes" consists of 
two complementary phases in the following order : (1) Instruc- 
tion, and (2) Rendition. 

Instruction. The process of "singing from notes" begins 
with the singer's mental construction of the "tune" repre- 
sented on the " staff." The conditions of success in this pro- 
cess are (1) the singer's mastery of the system of representa- 
tion, and (2) the power to construct mentally that which is 
represented physically. The former task is possible for the 
common mind ; the latter is the prerogative of talent. 

Rendition. Oral construction begins where instruction ends, 
and completes the process of " singing from notes," inasmuch as 
it is the mind's mode of expressing its contents and conveying 
its moral messages. The conditions of great success are (1) 
intellectual mastery of means, (2) spirituality, and (3) exercise. 

The History of Singing. The purpose in hand forbids 
extensive reference to the history of singing. The subject, 
however, demands some attention. The " place" which sing- 
ing now occupies in our schools will be better understood by 
reference to its history. The following topics will, therefore, 
be briefly considered : (1) The development of singing as a 



SINGING 375 

study ; (2) Its institutional services ; and (3) Its introduction 
into schools. 

The Evolution of Singing. Simple melody, without nice 
discrimination between the different degrees of pitch, was prob- 
ably the limit of musical attainment for a long period of time 
in the earliest history of the race. " The Greeks reduced 
musical intervals to mathematical ratios, introduced the chro- 
matic scale, and distinguished the major and minor intervals 
in the diatonic scale." Harmony was born much later. " In 
the sixteenth century music was cultivated with great devotion 
and success in Italy." Oratorios and operas were the fruits 
of this devotion. " Operatic music culminated in Italy in 
Rossini of the present century." Then followed the German 
masters, Haydn, Weber, and others. France was not far be- 
hind, and produced such men as Auber, Meyerbeer, and Hal- 
evy. England and English singers come last in the list of 
great efforts in the history of music. 

The Institutional Services of Singing. Singing, like its in- 
strumental associate, has ever been the welcome guest of society, 
the indispensable handmaid of religious worship, the spirit of 
valor in war, the divinest ideal of art, and a mighty friend of 
education. The most ancient as well as the most modern 
peoples have held music in the highest esteem. (See General 
History and History of Education.) 

The History of Singing in Schools. Probably all civilized 
nations paid some attention to singing in schools. Among 
the Oriental nations the Egyptians and the Jews laid great 
stress on singing as means of culture. Singing was an essen- 
tial element in the schools of Greece, and Greek philosophers 
bad much to say about the merits of music. Rome followed 
somewhat in the footsteps of Greece. Singing belonged to the 
curriculum of the early Christian schools, and was the queen 
of the celebrated seven " liberal arts" of the Middle Ages. 
Modern education has given an honorable place to singing. 



376 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

In Germany, France, and other European states singing has 
become a common-school study. America is ready to make 
singing a common-school study. In many cities singing is 
taught as systematically as reading and writing. The normal 
schools oflfer suitable courses in singing, and school boards are 
waking up to the importance of singing as a means in educa- 
tion. The prospects are that singing will become a universal 
study in our schools. 

B. INSTRUCTION IN SINGING. 

The special pedagogical interests of singing are conveniently 
considered under the following heads : (1) The Necessary 
Courses; (2) Singing in the Public Schools; and (3) The 
Importance of Singing. 

I. COURSES IN SINGING. 

The nature of singing, together with the requirements of 
culture and the demands of life, determine the courses of 
singing. (See Principles.) But since the requirements of the 
subject and of culture are satisfied by progress from the simple 
to the complex, etc., in the development of lessons, only the 
demands of " life" deserve special consideration at this point. 
The following topics accordingly deserve attention : (1) Sing- 
ing for the Masses ; (2) The Course of Singing for Teachers ; 
and (3) The Course for Specialists in Singing. 

Singing for the Masses. Instruction in singing should 
begin in the concrete, i.e., with simple melodies. The songs for 
children, as Froebel suggests, should be selected with special 
reference to their value as a means in the general cultnre and 
discipline of the pupil. The nature of singing requires that 
the first technical instruction should consist of exercises in (1) 
pitch and the natural scale, (2) time and simple rhythm, (3) 
timbre, and (4) force. Exercises in representation and reading 
should be combined with lessons on pitch, rhythm, time, etc., 



SINGING 377 

almost from the beginning. Sharps and flats should be first 
introduced in connection with simple melody. A course in 
sinarins: from notes and in voice-culture should follow a course 
in chords and part songs. If singing deserves a place in 
common schools, it deserves the place as a means of culture, 
as a source of happiness, and as a means in life. (See Fifth 
General Principle of Education.) It is, therefore, of the ut- 
most importance in mapping out a course of singing for the 
common schools to inquire into the moral, aesthetic, and prac- 
tical value of the course. The importance of singing in 
homes, society, church, etc., should not be forgotten. 

The Course of Singing- for Teachers. Since the power 
of imitation is the pupil's first great possibility in the arts, 
economy requires that teachers of singing take as thorough a 
course in singing as possible. The teacher of singing should, 
of course, know more than he will be required to illustrate. 
As a stimulus to artistic teaching the teacher needs a course 
of training in " composition" and " voice." A course of 
reading in musical literature is of great importance. In addi- 
tion to the course in singing, the teacher needs a thorough 
training in the principles and methods of teaching singing. 

The Course for Specialists in Singing. The purpose in 
hand does not require extensive reference to higher courses in 
the divine art of singing. It will suffice at this point to call 
attention to the extended courses in " voice" (including the 
physical technique as well as the " soul" training), in " thor- 
ough bass," etc., which are possible for those whose capacity 
and opportunity warrant the attempts. Those courses, of 
course, constitute the domain of technical schools. 

II. SINGING IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 

The problems with which we are especially concerned at 
this point are : (1) The Preparation of Lessons, and (2) The 
Recitation in Singing. 



378 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

The Preparation of Lessons, An ideal school requires 
preparation on the part of both teachers and pupils. 

Tlie Teacher^s Preparation. It is not enough that the 
teacher of singing has taken a course in singing and the peda- 
gogics of singing. The best teachers believe in " daily study" 
as a source of inspiration, power, and economy. It is of the 
utmost importance that the teacher of singing fix upon some 
special " end" for each recitation, that he plan the necessary 
steps before the recitation, that he select the best meaus 
(black-board, charts, etc.), and that he settle upon the most 
effective method of using his means in the attainment of his 
ends. 

The PupiPs Pi-eparation. (1) Formal preparation of les- 
sons is not to be expected of beginners in singing. (2) When 
pupils in singing are old enough to study " notes" formally, 
lessons may be assigned as in other branches. (3) In higher 
and special courses the teacher must, of course, insist on prac- 
tice between recitations. 

The Recitation in Singing. The nature of the subject 
determines the tasks of the recitation in singing, while the 
needs of the pupil determine the right method of work. 

Tasks of the Recitation in Singing. Lessons on pitch, scales, 
time, melody, representation, reading, etc., must consist of (1) 
instruction to reach the pupil's intellect and feelings, and (2) 
exercises for the pupil's voice and will. In the accomplish- 
ment of the former task the teacher is subject to the principles 
of ordinary instruction ; in the latter he is subject to the law 
of the formation of " habit," inasmuch as voice-culture con- 
sists essentially in forming right habits of voluntary utter- 
ance. 

The Recitation Method in Singing. (1) The scientific 
method of instruction is as applicable to singing as to other 
studies. The pupil learns the facts of pitch, time, force, rep- 
resentation, etc., by " observation" ; he passes from facts to 



SINGING 379 

laws by " induction," and back to practical methods by " de- 
duction." (2) In the development of right habits of pitch, 
force, etc., the pupil must be required to do whatever is to be- 
come habit until it actually becomes habit. These necessary 
repetitions must be so varied and adapted to the interests of 
the pupil as not to weary him. A skilful use of the black- 
board, charts, part songs, etc., will generally succeed in sus- 
taining the pupil's interest. (3) The lessons should be as con- 
crete as possible for elementary classes ; representation (staff, 
notes, etc.) may lead in higher classes ; fine technique is the 
fi.nal concern in singing. (4) Among the best systems of " no- 
tation" are those employed in the " Normal Music Course," 
published by Silver, Rogers & Co., 50 Bromfield Street, Bos- 
ton. For detailed instruction on "method" the reader is 
referred to the " Teachers' Manual" of this course, or to the 
Mason System, published by Ginn & Co., Boston. 

III. IMPORTANCE OF SINGING. 

Singing has long been regarded as a valuable educational 
means. 

The Culture-Value of Singing. A course in singing 
tends to develop the whole pupil. (1) "It brings a valuable 
contribution to physical development by fortifying the lungs 
and giving suppleness to all the vocal organs. These organs 
are less liable to the many grave maladies which might affect 
them, especially in early years, if they have been subjected 
to regular exercise." (2) " By this means we provide for the 
education of the ear ; we cultivate and refine a sense which 
along with vision plays a preeminent part in the intellectual 
existence of the child." Singing affords fine opportunities for 
the cultivation of memory, imagination, and thought. (3) Its 
effects on the sensibilities are very remarkable. This is due 
fundamentally to its rhythm, by means of which all species 
of emotion can be combined with thoughts and transformed 



380 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 

into volitions. The mind tends to express its sweetest senti- 
ments and its loftiest aspirations in song. Singing touches the 
heart as almost nothing else can do, and thus becomes the 
vehicle of social, patriotic, moral, and religious influence. 
These moral possibilities make it important to admit within 
the school only the works of a pure and exalted sentiment, 
and, as much as possible, the productions of the great masters. 

The Instruction- Value of Singing-. The knowledge of 
pitch, time, qualities of voice, force, rhythm, melody, and 
harmony is virtually a partial conquest of such branches as 
reading, poetry, etc. This knowledge is also to be desired for 
its own sweet sake as a source of happiness. It may thus 
become for young people the most powerful preservative against 
the dangers of other pleasures. 

The Disciplinary Value of Singing. The child loves 
music. Singing is, therefore, " one of the surest and most sal- 
utary means of discipline which can be employed." A song 
introduced at the right moment into a sleepy, languid school, 
or it may be into one agitated and disturbed, acts like elec- 
tricity. " Music has the gift of calming children, and at the 
same time of urging them to activity by an agreeable excita- 
tion." Rhythm promotes self-control in physical movements, 
develops unity of action in large numbers, and stimulates good 
mood. It is an excellent recreation, giving repose from serious 
studies, and preparing the spirit of the pupils for subsequent 
tasks. 



APPENDIX. 



381 



APPENDIX. 



REFERENCE BOOKS FOR COLLATERAL 
READING. 



PSYCHOLOGY. 

1. Psychology in Education. Roark. American Book Company. 

2. Application of Psychology to Teaching. Hailman. Small. 

3. Apperception. Lange. D. C. Heath & Co. 

4. Principles of Psychology. James. Henry Holt & Co. 

5. Psychology of Children. Tracey. D. C. Heath & Co. 

6. Studies of Childhood. Sully. 

7. The Infant Mind. Preyer. D. Appleton & Co. 

8. Three Years of Childhood. Perez. C. W. Bardeen. 

PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING. 

1. Leonard and Gertrude. Pestalozzi. D. C. Heath & Co. 

2. Emile. Rousseau. D. C. Heath & Co. 

3. Education of Man. Froehel. A. Lovell & Co. 

4. Lectures to Kindergartners. Peabody. T>. C. Heath & Co. 

5. Evolution of Dodd. Smith. Eand, McNally & Co. 

6. Education. Spencer. Educational Publishing Company. 

7. Philosophy of Education. Rosenkranz. Appleton & Co. 

8. Philosophy of Education. Tate. C. W. Bardeen. 

9. Philosophy of Teaching. Tompkins. Ginn & Co. 

10. Science of Education. Herbart. D. C. Heath & Co. 

11. Outlines of Pedagogics. Rein. C. W. Bardeen. 

12. Studies in Pedagogy. Morgan. Silver, Burdett & Co. 

13. A Manual of Pedagogics. Putnam. Silver, Burdett & Co. 

14. Essentials of Method. De olrmo. D. C. Heath & Co. 

15. Lectures on Teaching. Joseph Payne. E. L. Kellogg & Co. 

16. True Order of Studies. Hill. ' G. P. Putnam's Sons. 

383 



384 APPENDIX 

METHODS OF TEACHING. 

Arithmetic. 

1. Grube Method of Arithmetic. Seely. E. L. Kellogg & Co. 

2. Psychology of Number. Dewey. 

3. Philosophy of Arithmetic. Brooks. Normal Publishing Com- 

pany. 

4. Elements of Pedagogy. WhUe. Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co. 

5. Normal Methods of Teaching. Brooks. 

Composition. 

1. Language Lessons. Barnes. American Book Company. 

2. Elementary Lessons in English, Parts I. and II. Knox. Ginn 

&Co. 

3. Practical Lessons in Language. Conklin. American Book Com- 

pany. 

4. Treatise on Punctuation. Wilson. American Book Company. 

5. How to Write Clearly. Abbott. Roberts Brothers. 

6. Analysis of Letter Writing. Townsend. American Book Com- 

pany. 

7. Elements of Rhetoric and Composition. Hill. Sheldon & Co. 

8. Composition and Rhetoric. Quakenbos. American Book Com- 

pany. 

9. Practical Elements of Rhetoric. Genung. Ginn & Co. 

Drawing. 

1. Elements of Drawing Simplified. Augsburg. Educational Pub- 

lishing Company. 

2. System of Drawing. White. Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor & Co. 

3. System of Drawing. Montgomery. Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor 

&Co. 

Geography. 

1. The Child and Nature. Frye. Ginn & Co. 

2. Brooks and Brook Basins. Frye. Ginn & Co. 

3. Teachers' Manual of Geography. Frye. Ginn & Co. 

4. Teacher's Manual of Geography. Redway. D. C. Heath & Co. 

5. Elements of Pedagogy. White. Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co. 

6. Geographical Studies. Bitter. Van Antwerp, Bra^ & Co. 

7. Comparative Geography. Bitter. Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co. 

8. Physiography. Huxley. London, 1881. 



APPENDIX 385 

Grammar. 

1. English Grammar and Composition. Reed and Kellogg, Clark 

& Maynard. 

2. English Grammar. Lyte. American Book Company. 

3. English Grammar. Welsh. American Book Company. 

4. Essentials of English Grammar. Whitney. Ginn & Co. 

5. Grammar Land. Nesbitt. Holt & Co. 

6. The English Language. Meiklejohn. D. C. Heath & Co. 

History. 

1. Stories of Pennsylvania. Walton and Brumbaugh. American 

Book Company. 

2. Methods of Historical Study. Freeman. London, 1886. 

3. Methods of Teaching and Studying History. Hall. D. C. Heath 

&Co. 

4. Aids to Teaching of General History. Sheldon. Heath & Co. 

5. History of Civilization. Guizot. 

6. Philosophy of History. 

Manual Training. 

1. First Lessons in Wood- Working. Compton. American Book 

Company. 

2. How to Use Wood- Working Tools. Whitaker. D. C. Heath & Co. 

3. Manual Training School. Woodward. D. C. Heath & Co. 

4. Bench Work in Wood. Goss. Ginn & Co. 

5. Educational Value of Manual Training. Woodward. D. C. Heath 

&Co. 

6. Pennsylvania Commission of Industrial Education. Edwin K. 

Myers. 

7. Manual Training. Ham. Harper & Brothers. 

Mental Culture. 

1. Mental Science and Culture. Brooks. Normal Publishing Com- 

pany, Lancaster, Pennsylvania. 

2. Self-Culture. Blackie. Charles Scribner's Sons. 

3. Habit in Education. Radestock. D. C. Heath & Co. 

4. Memory. Kay. D. Appleton & Co. 

25 



386 APPENDIX 

Object Lessons. 

1. Primary Object Lessons. Calkins. American Book Company. 

2. Manual of Object Teaching. Calkins. American Book Company. 

3. Color in the School Room. Bradley. Milton Bradley Company. 

4. First Book of Botany. Youmans. D. Appleton & Co. 

5. Natural History Object Lessons. Ricks. D. C. Heath & Co. 

6. Child's Book of Nature. Hooker. American Book Company. 

Physiology. 

1. Health Lessons. Walker. American Book Company. 

2. How to Get Strong. Blaikie. 

3. How to Teach Physiology. Blaisdell. Ginn & Co. 

4. Hints for Teachers of Physiology. Bowdilch. T>. C. Heath & Co. 

Physical Culture. 

1. Physical Culture. Preece. C. W. Bardeen. 

2. Progressive Gymnastic Day's Orders. Enebuske. Silver, Burdett 

&Co. 

3. Manual of School Gymnastics. Smart. American Book Com- 

pany. 

4. Americanized Delsarte Culture. Bishop. Chautauqua-Century 

Press. 

Reading. 

1. How to Teach Reading. Hall. D. C. Heath & Co. 

2. Rational Method in Reading. Ward. Silver, Burdett & Co. 

3. Manual of Synthetic Reading. Pollard. Western Publishing 

House. 

4. Reading as a Fine Art. Legouve. Boston, 1887. 

5. Mastery of Books. Koopman. American Book Company. 

Singing. 

1. Educational Music Course. Mason. Ginn & Co. 

2. Normal Course of Music in the School Room. Lyman. Silver, 

Burdett & Co. 

3. Teacher's Manual of Music. Tufts and Holt. Silver, Burdett «fe Co. 

4. Science of ^Esthetics. Day. G. P. Putnam's Sons. 



APPENDIX 387 

Spelling. 

1. Normal Course in Spelling. Dunton. Silver, Burdett & Co. 

2. Advanced Speller. Pollard. "Western Publishing House. 

3. Scientific Alphabet. Van De Venter. Funk & Wagnalls Company. 

4. The Orthoepist. Alfred Ayres. D. Appleton & Co. 

Writing. 

1. Theory of Penmanship. Spencer. Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor & Co. 

2. Vertical Edition of Spencerian Penmanship. American Book 

Company. 

3. Vertical Penmanship. Merrill. Maynard, Merrill & Co. 

4. How to Teach Writing. Appleton. American Book Company, 



INDEX. 



Psychology : 

Abstraction, 15, 27 ; aflfections, 20 ; analysis, 18 ; apperception, 16, 
50 ; association tracks, 13 ; attention, 23 ; choice, 22 ; classification, 
17 ; conception, 16 ; conscience, 15 ; consciousness, 16, 26 ; curi- 
osity, 21 ; decision, 22 ; deduction, 18 ; definition, 24 ; desires, 20 ; 
direct comparison, 17 ; emotions, 19 ; expectations, 21 ; fear, 21 ; 
generalization, 15 ; habit, 13, 33 ; hate, 18 ; hope, 21 ; ideas, 12 ; 
ideation, 12, 49 ; idea of identity in thought, 28 ; imagination, 14, 
27, 42 ; indirect comparison, 18 ; induction, 18 ; interaction of 
mental activities, 25 ; intellect, 12 ; intention, 23 ; interest, 21 ; 
judgment, 17 ; knowing, 19 ; knowledge, 19 ; laws of mental ac- 
tivity, 25 ; limits of imagination, 28 ; limits of mental development, 
30 ; love, 18 ; memory, 13, 27, 42 ; middle term, 18 ; mind, 24 ; 
motives, 22 ; neurosis, 26 ; passion, 20 ; perception, 13, 41 ; prem- 
ises, 18 ; psychology, 11 ; psychosis, 26 ; purpose, 23 ; reasoning, 

18 ; resolution, 23 ; sensation, 12, 26 ; sensibility, 19, 43 ; simple 
emotions, 19 ; synthesis, 17 ; stages of mental development, 29 ; 
summation of stimuli, 25 ; syllogism, 19, 50 ; taste, 15 ; thinking, 

19 ; thought, 17, 42 ; thoughts, 18 ; total interaction of mental ac- 
tivities, 28 ; trend of imagination, 27 ; understanding, 19 ; volition, 
22 ; will, 22, 43. 

Principles of Teaching : 

Adaptation of tasks, 36 ; arts, 49 ; adaptation of lessons, 67 ; bio- 
logical sciences, 46 ; catalogue of correlated studies, 53, 55 ; causes 
before laws, etc., 62 ; " Committee of Fifteen," 53, 56, 57 ; "Com- 
mittee on Secondary Education in Pennsylvania," 53, 58 ; concen- 
tration in exercises, 44 ; concentration in programs, 52 ; concrete 
before abstract ideas, 60 ; correlation of exercises, 41 ; correlation 
of sciences, 65 ; correlation of studies, 52 ; courses of studies, 52 ; 
culture of instruction, 72, 73 ; definition of education, 39 ; direct 
relation of ideas, 50 ; directing the pupil, 36 ; emancipating the 
pupil in instruction, 37, 74 ; exercise the law of development, 41 ; 
facts defined, 45 ; geography classified, 47 ; habits in education, 33; 

389 



390 INDEX 

ideas before names and signs, 59 ; ideas before truths, 59 ; ideal of 
education, 38 ; ideal instruction, 75 ; interesting instruction, 69 ; 
limitations of mental capacity, ,38 ; limitations of development, 44: ; 
man's capacity, 33 ; mathematics, 46 ; mental capacity, 34 ; mental 
sciences, 47 ; nature of education, 33, 34 ; nature of knowledge, 
45 ; nature of man, 33 ; natural sciences, 46 ; needs of the whole 
pupil in instruction, 70 ; order of facts of sciences, 63 ; order of 
princijjles of sciences, 64 ; particular before general ideas, 61 ; par- 
ticular before general truths, 61 ; philosophy, 65 ; physical ca- 
pacity of man, 34 ; physical sciences, 46 ; play, 35 ; principles, 41, 
59, 67 ; principles of culture, 41 ; principles of instruction, 67 ; 
principles of knowledge, 59 ; programmes, 54, 58 ; psychology of 
science, 49 ; pupil's emancipation, 37 ; right method of instruction, 
71 ; self-activity in education, 35 ; self-supervision, 37 ; science, 
45 ; species of man's capacity, 34 ; species of education, 40 ; species 
of knowledge, 45 ; specific methods of instruction, 74 ; specific 
syllogistic features of the sciences, 51 ; stimulating the pupil, 36 ; 
succession of lessons, 68 ; supervising the pupil, 35 ; syllogism, 50 ; 
system in self-activity, 35, 36 ; theology, 49 ; work, 35. 

Methods of Teaching- : 

Arithmetic, 240 ; composition, 169 ; drawing, 328 ; geography, 282 ; 
grammar, 204 ; history, 310 ; manual training, 347 ; mental culture, 
79 ; object lessons, 89 ; physiology, 359 ; physical culture, 363 ; 
reading, 106 ; singing, 371 ; spelling, 145 ; writing, 131. 

Arithmetic : 

Analysis of numbers, 242 ; comparison of numbers, 242 ; courses 
of arithmetic, 247 ; culture value of arithmetic, 280 ; deduction in 
arithmetic, 245 ; definition of arithmetic, 246 ; history of arith- 
metic, 246 ; importance of arithmetic, 280 ; induction in arith- 
metic, 244 ; instruction-value of arithmetic, 247 ; language of 
number-operations, 242 ; nature of arithmetic, 240 ; nature of num- 
bers, 240 ; number-operations, 241 ; observation in arithmetic, 244 ; 
practical value of arithmetic, 281 ; psychology of arithmetic, 244 ; 
subject of arithmetic, 240, 243 ; synthesis of numbers, 241 ; train- 
ing of teachers of arithmetic, 281. 

Elementary Arithmetic : 

Borrowing, 258 ; carrying, 257 ; concepts of operation, 250 ; deci- 
mal fractions, 264 ; denominate numbers, 265 ; dividing, 260 ; di- 



INDEX 391 

vision by fractions, 263 ; ends in view in elementary arithmetic, 
249 ; exercises, 253 ; fraction-concepts, 261 ; Grube treatment of 
"four," 255; illustrative lessons, 255 ; means, 254 ; method of in- 
struction, 249 ; multiplying, 260 ; names of numbers, 256 ; number- 
concepts, 249 ; number-language, 251 ; number-operations, 252 ; 
order of subjects, 254 ; problems, 253 ; speed-drills in "four," op- 
erations, 260 ; tables, 259 ; "terms" of a fraction, 262 ; two-thirda 
and four-sixths, 262 ; two-thirds of thi-ee-fourths, 263. 

Intermediate Arithmetic : 

Axioms, 266 ; concepts, 266 ; ends in view, 266 ; method of inter- 
mediate arithmetic, 266 ; order of subjects, 269 ; principles, 267 ; 
problems, 269 ; rules, 266, 268. 

Written Arithmetic : 

Answers, 270 ; assignment of lessons, 271 ; assignment of problems, 
272 ; criticisms, 273 ; attention to general truths, 274 ; importance 
of reviews, 274 ; objects of recitation, 272 ; preparing the board, 
272 ; preparing lessons, 271 ; problems, 269 ; pupil's explanation 
of problems, 273 ; plan of recitation, 272 ; teacher's part in prob- 
lems, 274 ; working of problems, 273. 

Mental Arithmetic : 

Board-work, 277 ; chance assignment of problems, 276 ; common 
method of recitation, 276 ; discipline of mental arithmetic, 277 ; 
importance of mental arithmetic, 277 ; nature of mental arithmetic, 
275 ; " parts" method of assigning problems, 276 ; plea for mental 
arithmetic, 278 ; practical value of mental arithmetic, 278 ; prepa- 
ration of lessons, 276 ; recitation, 276 ; silent method of solving 
problems, 277 ; solution of problems, 275. 

Higher Arithmetic : 

Ends in view, 278 ; high-school arithmetic, 279 ; method of in- 
struction, 279 ; normal-school arithmetic, 279 ; subjects of higher 
arithmetic, 279. 

Composition : 

Capitals, 182 ; constructing a composition, 177, 180 ; correcting a 
composition, 179, 201 ; criticising a composition, 178 ; cumulating 



392 INDEX 

materials, 169, 179, 196 ; diction, 180 ; figures of speech, 181 ; fin- 
ishing touches, 178, 182 ; importance of composition, 202 ; instruc- 
tion in composition, 179 ; mechanical execution, 177 ; nature of 
composition, 169 ; outlines, 171 to 176 ; plan of construction, 170, 
180, 200 ; principles of instruction, 182 ; punctuation, 182 ; selec- 
tion of subjects, 169, 179, 195 ; species of composition, 170 ; struc- 
ture of sentences, 181 ; taste in composition, 182. 

Elementary Composition : 

Anecdotes, 191 ; committing, 188 ; describing objects, 190 ; de- 
scribing actions, 190 ; describing pictures, 191 ; ellipses, 186 ; imi- 
tation, 187 ; names of objects, 185 ; names of actions, 186 ; narra- 
tives, 191 ; original sentences, 186, 189 ; poems, 188 ; simple sen- 
tences, 186 ; simple letters, 189 ; stories, 191. 

Intermediate Composition : 

Acquisition of style, 199 ; acquisition of vocabulary, 197 ; correct- 
ing a composition, 201 ; cumulating materials, 196 ; diction, 194 ; 
figures of rhetoric, 194 ; letters, 193 ; original exercises, 195 ; plan 
of construction, 200 ; poetry and prose, 194 ; selection of subjects, 
195 ; sentence-qualities, 194 ; substance of reading lessons, 192 ; 
style, 199 ; synopsis of lessons, 193 ; vocabulary, 197 ; written reci- 
tations in various studies, 192 ; writing a composition, 200. 

Higher Composition : 

Aims, 202 ; requisites, 202. 

Drawing : 

Courses of drawing, 333 ; culture value of drawing, 344 ; deduction 
in drawing, 331 ; definition of drawing, 332 ; form-facts of objects, 
330 ; form-laws of objects, 330 ; history of drawing, 333 ; induction 
in drawing, 330 ; importance of drawing, 344 ; instruction in draw- 
ing, 333 ; instruction-value of drawing, 345 ; laws of form-repre- 
sentation, 331 ; length of lines, 328 ; linear representation of forms, 

328 ; linear representation of objects, 332 ; marks of expression, 

329 ; method of study, 330 ; nature of drawing, 328 ; observation 
in drawing, 330 ; possibilities of the pupil, 334 ; practical value of 
drawinj;, 345 ; psychology of drawing, 330 ; representation-facts of 
form, 330 ; training of drawing- teachers, 346 ; type-form analysis 
of objects, 331. 



INDEX 393 

Elementary Drawing : 

Cylinder, 340 ; dictation by line, 341 ; illustrative lessons, 336- 
341 ; method of instruction, 336 ; preparation of lessons, 336 ; 
recitation, 336-338 ; subjects of elementary drawing, 335 ; sphere, 
339 ; cube-faces, 340. 

Intermediate Drawing : 

Method of instruction, 342 ; subjects of intermediate drawing, 
342. 

Higher Drawing : 

Method of instruction, 344 ; subjects of higher drawing, 343. 



Geography : 

Culture-value of geography, 309 ; explanation, 283 ; history of 
geography, 285 ; importance of geography, 309 ; instruction in 
geography, 286 ; instruction-value of geography, 309 ; nature of 
geography, 282 ; necessary courses, 287, 288, 289 ; observation in 
geography, 283 ; practical value of geography, 309 ; psychology of 
geography, 282 ; relations of geography, 284 ; subject of geogra- 
phy, 282 ; species of geography, 283 ; teachers of geography, 309. 

Elementary Geography : 

Climate, 294 ; continents, 296 ; countries, 298 ; deductions, 290 ; 
development of concepts, 289 ; direction, 292-297 ; discovery of 
facts, 289 ; distance, 293 ; distribution of land and water, 296 ; ends 
in view, 289 ; form of the earth. 295, 301 ; inductions, 289 ; illustra- 
tive lessons, 297 ; lesson-method, 290 ; motions of the earth, 296 ; 
people, 295 ; plants, 301 ; position, 292, 297 ; productions, 294 ; rep- 
resentation, 291, 293 ; seasons, 301 ; soil, 294, 300 ; subjects of ele- 
mentary geography, 292 ; surfaces, 293 ; water, 293. 

Intermediate Geography : 

Deductions of intermediate geography, 304 ; ends in view, 303 ; 
enlargement of concepts, 303 ; inductions of intermediate geog- 
raphy, 304 ; lesson-method, 304 ; map-drawing, 305 ; multiplica- 
tion of facts, 303 ; preparation of lessons, 306 ; recitation, 306 ; 
subjects of intermediate geography, 306. 



394 INDEX 

Higher Geography: 

College geography, 308 ; high-school geography, 308 ; methods 
of higher geography, 308 ; normal-school geography, 308 ; tasks of 
higher geography, 307 ; university geography, 308. 

Grammar : 

Analysis, 207 ; construction of sentences, 207 ; courses of gram- 
mar, 210 ; culture- value of grammar, 237 ; deduction in grammar, 
206 ; history of grammar, 208 ; importance of grammar, 237 ; in- 
duction in grammar, 206 ; instruction in grammar, 210 ; instruc- 
tion-value of grammar, 238 ; method of study, 205 ; nature of 
grammar, 204 ; observation in grammar, 205 ; parsing, 207 ; prac- 
tical value of grammar, 239 ; psychology of grammar, 205 ; sub- 
ject of grammar, 204 ; teachers of grammar, 239. 

Elementary Grammar: 

Adjectives, 215 ; adverbs, 216 ; cases, 219 ; comparison, 220 ; con- 
junctions, 218 ; deductions of elementary grammar, 212 ; elements 
of a sentence, 221 ; illustrative lessons, 214 ; inductions of ele- 
mentary grammar, 211 ; irregular verbs, 221 ; methods of instruc- 
tion, 214 ; modifiers, 217 ; nouns, 215 ; objects of elementary gram- 
mar, 211 ; observation in elementary grammar, 214 ; predicate of 
a sentence, 217 ; prepositions, 218 ; pronouns, 218 ; regular verbs, 
221 ; rules of grammar, 222 ; subjects of elementary grammar, 212 ; 
subject of a sentence, 216 ; tense, 220 ; verbs, 215. 

Intermediate Grammar : 

Abbreviations in parsing, 226 ; analysis, 228 ; abbreviations in 
analysis, 230 ; diagrams in grammar, 231 ; deductions, 223 ; defi- 
nitions, 224 ; eclectic analysis, 230 ; eclectic parsing, 227 ; en- 
thymeme statements in analysis, 229 ; enthymeme statements in 
parsing, 225 ; errors in analysis, 232 ; errors in parsing, 228 ; 
exercises in syntax, 233 ; false syntax, 233 ; forms of analysis, 
228 ; forms of parsing, 225 ; grammatical description, 230 ; import- 
ance of exercises in syntax, 234 ; inductions in intermediate gram- 
mar, 223 ; inflections, 224 ; method of instruction, 234 ; objects of 
analysis, 233 ; objects of parsing, 228 ; objects of intermediate 
grammar, 223 ; original sentences, 234 ; parsing, 225 ; preparation 
of lessons, 235 ; proportion of oral and written analysis, 232 ; pro- 
portion of oral and written parsing, 227 ; recitation, 235 ; relation 
of analysis and synthesis, 232 ; rules, 224 ; simple statements in 



INDEX 395 

analysis, 229 ; simple statements in parsing, 226 ; subjects of inter- 
mediate grammar, 223 ; text-books of intermediate grammar, 234. 

Higher Grammar: 

High-school grammar, 236 ; methods of instruction, 237 ; normal- 
school grammar, 236 ; objects of higher grammar, 236 ; prepara- 
tory school grammar, 237 ; subjects of higher grammar, 236. 

History : 

Courses of history, 315 ; culture-value of history, 327 ; deduction in 
history, 313 ; definition of history, 313 ; history of history, 314 ; 
importance of history, 326 ; induction in history, 311, 312 ; in- 
struction in history, 315 ; instruction- value of history, 327 ; nature 
of history, 310 ; observation in history, 311 ; psychology of history, 
310 ; species of history, 313 ; subject of history, 310 ; teachers of 
history, 327 ; theories of history, 312. 

Elementary History : 

Construction of events, 315 ; inquiry into the relation of events, 
316 ; means in elementary history, 317 ; method of instruction, 
316 ; recitation, 317 ; subjects of elementary history, 319 ; tasks of 
elementary history, 315. 

Intermediate History : 

Assignment of lessons, 324 ; imagination of complex lessons, 320 ; 
inquiry into i-emote relations of events, 321 ; means of instruction, 
321 ; method of instruction, 321 ; oral recitations, 323 ; prepara- 
tion of lessons, 322 ; recitation, 322 ; reviews, 324 ; tasks of inter- 
mediate history, 320 ; written recitations, 323. 

Higher History : 

College history, 326 ; high-school history, 326 ; normal-school his- 
tory, 326 ; tasks of higher history, 325 ; university history, 326. 

Manual Training : 

Courses of instruction, 352 ; culture-value, 357 ; exercises, 348, 
352 ; history of manual training, 348 ; importance, 357 ; instruction, 
351 ; instruction- value, 357 ; manual training-room, 355 ; material 
equipments, 355 ; manual training in the United States, 348 ; 
methods of instruction, 354 ; practical value, 358 ; preparation of 
lessons, 355 ; prospects of manual training, 349 ; pupil's prepara- 



396 INDEX 

tion of lessons, 356 ; recitation, 356 ; studies, 347 ; tasks of manual 
training, 347 ; teachers of manual training, 358 ; teacher's prepa- 
ration of lessons, 355 ; tools, 355 ; working materials, 355. 

Elementary Manual Training : 

Ends in view, 353 ; exercises, 353 ; recitation, 356 ; studies, 353. 

Intermediate Manual Training : 

Ends in view, 353 ; exercises, 353 ; studies, 353. 

Higher Manual Training : 

Ends in view, 354 ; exercises, 354 ; studies, 354. 

Mental Culture : 

Imagination, 83 ; memory, 80 ; perception, 79 ; sensibility, 85 ; 
thought, 84 ; will, 86 to 88. 

Object Lessons: 

Color, 93 ; course of object lessons, 91 ; ends in view, 89 ; form, 
91 ; history of object lessons, 90 ; importance of object lessons, 
104 ; instruction in object lessons, 91 ; method of instruction, 104 ; 
method of study, 90 ; nature o{ object lessons, 89 ; nature studies, 
102 ; parts, 99 ; qualities, 101 ; subjects of study in object lessons, 
89. 

Color : 

Analysis of compounds, 95 ; broken colors, 96 ; complements, 95 ; 
course of lessons, 96 ; harmonies, 96 ; importance of color-lessons, 
98 ; instruction in colors, 96 ; methods of instruction, 97 ; prepa- 
ration of lessons, 97 ; recitation, 97 ; scales of color, 94 ; solar spec- 
trum, 94 ; standard colors, 94 ; synthesis of colors, 95. 

Form : 

Elementary forms, 92 ; embodiment of forms, 91 ; importance of 
teaching forms, 93 ; method of teaching forms, 92. 

Nature Studies : 

Botany, 102 ; courses of lessons, 102 ; culture-value, 103 ; import- 
ance of nature studies, 103 ; instruction-value of nature studies, 
104 ; method of instruction, 103 ; practical value of nature studies, 
104 ; zoology, 102. 



INDEX 397 

Parts : 

Course of lessons, 99 ; importance of lessons on parts, 100 ; method 
of instruction, 100. 

Qualities : 

Course of lessons, 101 ; importance of lessons on qualities, 102 ; 
method of instruction, 101. 

Physiology : 

Common-school physiology, 360 ; course of physiology, 360 ; cul- 
ture-value, 362 ; functions of body, 359 ; health of body, 359 ; 
higher physiology, 361 ; history of physiology, 360 ; importance, 
361 ; instruction in physiology, 360 ; instruction-value of physi- 
ology, 362 ; life-value of physiology, 362 ; nature of physiology, 
359 ; psychology of physiology, 360 ; subjects of physiology, 359. 

Physical Culture : 

Adoption of a system, 369 ; classification of physical exercises, 
365 ; course of exercises, 362 ; history of physical culture, 364 ; 
importance of physical culture, 370 ; instruction in physical cul- 
ture, 365 ; lower-limb movements, 365 ; method of instruction in 
physical culture, 368 ; nature of physical culture, 363 ; necessity 
of physical culture, 363 ; preparation of lessons, 368 ; principles 
of physical culture, 366 ; recitation, 369 ; relation of body and 
mind, 364 ; trunk movements, 365 ; upper-limb m©vements, 365. 

Reading : 

Culture-value of reading, 130 ; elocution, 109 ; history of reading, 
111 ; ideal vocabulary, 113 ; importance of reading, 130 ; laws of ac- 
centuation, 109 ; laws of articulation, 108 ; laws of enunciation, 107 ; 
laws of pronunciation, 107 ; laws of syllabication, 108 ; methods 
of instruction, 112 ; nature of reading, 106 ; practical value of read- 
ing, 130 ; progress in vocabulary, 114 ; pronunciation, 106 ; psy- 
chology of reading. 111 ; teacher's tasks, 112 ; teacher's training, 
130. 

Elementary Reading : 

Alphabetic method, 121 ; alphabetic names, 120 ; analysis of anal- 
ogous words, 117 ; analysis of representative words, 116 ; capital 
letters, 120 ; diacritical marks, 119 ; discovery of rules, 118 ; pho- 



r 



398 INDEX 

netic method, 122 ; Pollard method, 122 ; script letters, 119 ; sen- 
tence building, 118 ; teacher's preparation of lessons, 118 ; teach- 
ing ability, 117 ; transition to visible words, 116 ; vocabulary, 115 ; 
"word" method, 121. 

Intermediate Reading : 

Analysis, 124 ; development of literary taste, 129 ; elocutionary 
exercises, 127 ; enunciation drills, 127 ; fluency, 109 ; inductive 
discoveries, 118 ; language lessons, 118 ; lisping, 128 ; mental phase 
of reading, 128 ; stammering, 128 ; supplementary reading, 129 ; 
synthesis, 117. 

Singing : 

Courses in singing, 376 ; culture- value, 379 ; disciplinary value, 
380 ; force of tones, 372 ; harmony of tones, 372 ; history of sing- 
ing, 374 ; importance of singing, 379 ; instruction in singing, 376 ; 
instruction- value of singing, 380 ; melody, 372 ; method of instruc- 
tion, 378 ; nature of singing, 371 ; pitch of tones, 371 ; preparation 
of lessons, 378 ; production of tones, 371 ; public-school singing, 
377 ; pupil's preparation of lessons, 378 ; recitation, 378 ; recita- 
tion tasks, 378 ; reading of notes, 374 ; representation of tones, 
373 ; rhythm of tones, 372 ; singing of the " masses," 376 ; singing 
of teachers, 377 ; specialists in singing, 377 ; teacher's preparation 
of lessons, 378 ; time of tones, 372. 

Spelling : 

Course of lessons, 167 ; discipline of spelling, 168 ; history of Eng- 
lish orthography, 145 ; importance of spelling, 167 ; instruction 
in spelling, 149 ; nature of spelling, 145 ; observation in spelling, 
150 ; origin of alphabet, 145 ; physical structure of words, 148 ; 
practical value of spelling, 168 ; preparation of lessons, 150 ; prin- 
ciples of instruction, 165 ; psychology of spelling, 149 ; recitation, 
152 ; recreations, 160 ; relative merits of oral and written spelling, 
162 ; rules of spelling, 151 ; species of spelling, 152, 155 ; spelling 
books, 167 ; spelling matches, 160 ; spelling reforms, 147 ; supple- 
mentary devices, 159 ; trapping, 159 ; vocabulary lessons, 167. 

Oral Spelling : 

Advantages, 164 ; assigning words, 155 ; meaning of words, 157 ; 
preliminaries, 155 ; spelling the words, 156, 



INDEX 399 

Written Spelling : 

Advantages, 162 ; assigning lessons, 154 ; assigning words, 152 ; 
corrections, 154 ; preliminaries, 152 ; spelling the words, 153. 

Writing : 

Artistic penmanship, 143 ; capital letters, 142 ; combined move- 
ments, 140 ; courses in writing, 136 ; desirable qualities of pen- 
manship, 133 ; disciplinary value, 143 ; elementary course, 137 ; 
figures, 142 ; finger movements, 139 ; fore-arm movements, 140 ; 
form elements, 132 ; form lessons, 141 ; higher course, 142 ; history 
of writing, 134 ; holding the pen, 139 ; importance of penmanship, 
143 ; instruction in writing, 136 ; intermediate course, 138 ; merits 
of slanting writing, 135 ; merits of vertical writing, 135 ; methods 
of instruction, 137, 138 ; nature of writing, 131 ; physical act of 
writing, 131 ; position at desk, 139 ; psychology of writing, 131 ; 
shading, 142 ; small letters, 141 ; spacing, 142 ; structure of script, 
132 ; tasks of writing courses, 137, 138 ; teachers of penmanship, 
143 ; whole-arm movements, 140. 






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